Third-wave feminism began in the early 1990s, coined by Naomi Wolf, it was a response to the generation gap between the feminist movement of the 1960’s and ’70’s, challenging and re-contextualising some of the definitions of femininity that grew out of that earlier period. In particular, the third-wave sees women’s lives as intersectional, demonstrating a pluralism towards race, ethnicity, class, religion, gender and nationality when discussing feminism.

The meaning of feminism

intersectionality, pluralism- key words

Male and female is not set in stone and that there is no particular thing classing you as a male or a female and it is internalised

1. an emphasis on the differences among women due to race, ethnicity, class, nationality, religion
2. individual and do-it-yourself (DIY) tactics
3. fluid and multiple subject positions and identities
4. cyberactivism
5. the reappropriation of derogatory terms such as ‘slut’ and ‘bitch’ for liberatory purposes
6. sex positivity

Third-wave feminism began in the early 1990s, coined by Naomi Wolf, it was a response to the generation gap between the feminist movement of the 1960’s and ’70’s

The shift in critical feminist studies that reconciles exploitation against empowerment illustrates the shift in feminist thinking towards the 3rd Wave of feminist thought, see for example, groups such as Third Wave Foundation.

According to Barker and Jane (2016), third wave feminism, which is regarded as having begun in the mid-90’s has following recognisable characteristics:

1. an emphasis on the differences among women due to race, ethnicity, class, nationality, religion
2. individual and do-it-yourself (DIY) tactics
3. fluid and multiple subject positions and identities
4. cyberactivism
5. the reappropriation of derogatory terms such as ‘slut’ and ‘bitch’ for liberatory purposes
6. sex positivity

Raunch culture is the sexualised performance of women in the media that can play into male stereotypes of women as highly sexually available, where its performers believe they are powerful owners of their own sexuality’.

Intersectionality:

 It is from this that the development and articulation of intersectionality began to take shape. The early ideas around intersectionality can be traced to theoretical developments from the 1980’s, see for example, the work by Kimberlé Crenshaw (1989) or some of the propositions asserted around Queer Theory

Queer Theory:

In the UK the pioneering academic presence in queer studies was the Centre for Sexual Dissedence in the English department at Sussex University, founded by Alan Sinfield and Johnathon Dollimore in 1990.

Feminist = a political position
Female = a matter of biology
Feminine = a set of culturally defined characteristics

FIRST WAVE
‘sexism was coined by analogy with the term racism in the American civil rights movement in the early 1960s. Defined simply, sexism refers to the systematic ways in which men and women are brought up to view each other antagonistically, on the assumption that the male is always superior to the female
‘(Michelene Wandor 1981:13)’

SECOND WAVE
the feminist literary criticism of today is the product of the women’s movement of the 1960’s
‘(Barry 2017:123)’

THIRD WAVE
‘rebellion of younger women against what was perceived as the prescriptive, pushy and ‘sex negative’ approach of older feminists.’
(344)Barker and Jane (2016 p. 344)

According to Barker and Jane (2016), third wave feminism, which is regarded as having begun in the mid-90’s has following recognisable characteristics:

1. an emphasis on the differences among women due to race, ethnicity, class, nationality, religion
2. individual and do-it-yourself (DIY) tactics
3. fluid and multiple subject positions and identities
4. cyberactivism
5. the reappropriation of derogatory terms such as ‘slut’ and ‘bitch’ for liberatory purposes
6. sex positivity

‘a product of the unresolved feminist sex wars – the conflict between the women’s movement and the sexual revolution‘ .
Ariel Levy (2006:74)

‘Raunch culture is the sexualised performance of women in the media that can play into male stereotypes of women as highly sexually available, where its performers believe they are powerful owners of their own sexuality’
Hendry & Stephenson (2018:50)

Intersectionality :
The idea that the focus of struggle was based around the struggles of the average white women whereas other races and sexualities where ignored, whereas once intersectionality started to gain traction more peoples struggles where starting to be recognised.

Third wave feminism– Different to feminism of the 60s (similar but different). Third wave feminism tries to embrace plural identity’s (multiple identity’s). This is called intersectionality.

According to Barker and Jane (2016), third wave feminism, which is regarded as having begun in the mid-90’s has following recognisable characteristics:

4th Wave Feminism– looked to explore these contradictary arguments and further sought to recognise and use the emancipatory tools of new social platforms to connect, share and develop new perspectives, experiences and responses to oppression, ‘tools that are allowing women to build a strong, popular, reactive movement online‘

• Feminist = a political position
• Female = a matter of biology
• Feminine = a set of culturally defined characteristics

Third-wave feminism is an iteration of the feminist movement. It began in the United States^[2] in the early 1990s and continued until the rise of the fourth wave in the 2010s.^[3][4] Born in the 1960s and 1970s as members of Generation X and grounded in the civil-rights advances of the second wave, third-wave feminists embraced individualism in women and diversity and sought to redefine what it meant to be a feminist.

Third-wave feminism began in the early 1990s, coined by Naomi Wolf, it was a response to the generation gap between the feminist movement of the 1960’s and ’70’s, challenging and re-contextualising some of the definitions of femininity that grew out of that earlier period. In particular, the third-wave sees women’s lives as intersectional, demonstrating a pluralism towards race, ethnicity, class, religion, gender and nationality when discussing feminism.

According to Barker and Jane (2016), third wave feminism, which is regarded as having begun in the mid-90’s has following recognisable characteristics:

1. an emphasis on the differences among women due to race, ethnicity, class, nationality, religion
2. individual and do-it-yourself (DIY) tactics
3. fluid and multiple subject positions and identities
4. cyberactivism
5. the reappropriation of derogatory terms such as ‘slut’ and ‘bitch’ for liberatory purposes
6. sex positivity
7. reappropriation- take back

Forth wave

Raunch culture is the sexualised performance of women in the media that can play into male stereotypes of women as highly sexually available, where its performers believe they are powerful owners of their own sexuality’

 As feminists came online in the late 1990s and early 2000s and reached a global audience with blogs and e-zines, they broadened their goals, focusing on abolishing gender-role stereotypes and expanding feminism to include women with diverse racial and cultural identities.^[12][13]

As part of this unit of work you need to complete the following exam essay, as ever exam essays can be found on the top menu, with feedback from the exam board.

Judith Butler describes gender as “an identity instituted through a stylized repetition of acts”. In other words, it is something learnt through repeated performance.

How useful is this idea in understanding gender is represented in both the Score and Maybelline advertising campaigns?

In this essay I will discuss how gender is represented in both the Score and Maybelline advertisements. Judith Butler, writer of the book “Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity”, is a philosopher and gender theorist whose work has influenced political philosophy, ethics, and the fields of third-wave feminism, queer theory, and literary theory. She strongly believes that gender should be seen as a human attribute that shifts and changes and disagrees with gender being limited to male or female. Butler says “Audiences learn how to perform gender via the media.” meaning that the media construct a person and their identity form them without people realising. Although he has similar beliefs to Butler, David Gauntlet, said “Audiences are in control of the media – adapting and assimilating ideas about themselves through the various representation that the media presents.” illustrating how audiences are collectively adapting cultural norms and adapting themselves to fit in to society.

Lisbet Van Zoonen is another theorist that supports Butler and highlights the idea that the concept of ‘woman’ is not a homogenous, collective noun. He thinks that people could be aware that there are differences between women and that ‘gender is not the defining quality alone for women, and intersects with race, sexuality and class.’ (Hendry & Stephenson 2018:52). Van Zoonen, develops and applies ideas of cultural hegemony (GRAMSCI) and interpellation (ALTHUSSER) towards feminist studies while prioritising the realm of popular culture as the site of struggle, where identities are continually being reconstructed.

The Maybelline advert represents an inclusive advert consisting of people who are not the stereotypical male or female. For example sexuality, gender, race and the use of marketing strategy’s encourage a wider audience and target audience. Most makeup adverts are stereotypical and usually only include women however in this particular advert it uses a male to represent their product.

Manny MUA, a social media influencer is included in this advert alongside another character, Shayla who is another social media influencer. Manny is a gay male, he is presented in this advert as quite feminine as he has a high pitched voice and is American which are both ‘stereotypical‘ traits of a gay/feminine male. This could be perceived as both positive and negative to the representation of sexuality as it represents men in the makeup industry that has been preciously dominated by women.

The advert presents both characters using the mascara and showing the audience how the mascara is applied. It is presented as a rich expensive product as the emphasis on the amount of gold used in the advert to show the expense and high standard of the product as gold connotates to money and power. In the advert it shows both characters going from not having expensive clothes on and being in a average NYC apartment to the transformation of them wearing gold outfits and looking ‘glammed up’ after using the product. Presenting this idea to the audience that if you use the product then you will then also feel this luxury. The advert also presents the idea of diversity of gender and race as Shayla in the advert is a black straight female and Manny is a white gay male. This is and example of a positive counter typical advert as it shows the audience that the product is not aimed at any specific group of people and that anyone can use this product. As in the advert ‘score’ that we looked at it focused on a specific group which is focused on middle class white men. Notice how in the video, the dominant signifier is the product shot of a suitcase full of mascara with gold shines illuminating from it. The gold shines represent the product as being a high quality product. However, the scene and set (the apartment) reminds the audience that the mascara is cheap.

Barker and Jane (2016) said ‘rebellion of younger women against what was perceived as the prescriptive, pushy and ‘sex negative’ approach of older feminists.’ According to Barker and Jane (2016), third wave feminism, which is regarded as having begun in the mid-90’s has many recognisable characteristics such as; an emphasis on the differences among women due to race, ethnicity, class, nationality, religion, fluid and multiple subject positions and identities, the reappropriation of derogatory terms such as ‘slut’ and ‘bitch’ and sex positivity.

The Queer Theory was founded by Alan Sinfield and Jonathan Dollimore in 1990. In terms of applying queer theory to feminist critical thought, many people, including Judith Butler, expressed doubt over the approach towards the oppositions like male/female; feminine/masculine, man/woman.

In contrast to Butler’s beliefs, the Score advert represents a degrading advert consisting of women who fit the stereotypical female category. They are dressed in little clothing, and carrying a man on a raised platform

The use of marketing strategy’s encourage a wider audience and target audience. Most makeup adverts are stereotypical and usually only include women however in this particular advert it uses a male to represent their product.However, not in a positive way. The Score advert was produced in the year of decriminilasiation of homosexuality and as such, the representation of heterosexuality could be read as signaling more anxiety than might first appear. When studying the advert, it was important to take into consideration it’s historical, social and cultural contexts. Score heavily relates to gender roles, sexuality and the historical context of advertising techniques. The advert makes men think that if they use score, women will instantly be attracted to them and they will become the superior, alpha male. Women didn’t have the rights that they do now when this advert was made and they were often objectified by men and were and are often stereotyped. This is an example of Laura Mulvey’s ‘male gaze‘ theory. The male audience are most likely attracted to the females in the advert due to the little and somewhat ‘tempting’ clothing. Notice how in the advert the woman at the back of the photo is reaching up to touch the male sitting on the platform. This represents her desire to connect with the male as he is using the product. Notice how in the fine print the word ‘Score‘ is mentioned 7 times and there are 4 pictures of the product containing the word ‘Score‘ also.

In summary, I believe that gender being “an identity instituted through a stylised repetition of acts” is learnt through the repeated performance of more modern adverts being made that are inclusive and focus on realistic/actual audience, meaning all types of gender rather than companies continuously focussing on their target audience and finding models who fit their stereotypical customers. The Score and Maybelline adverts are a perfect example of stereotypes/countertypes, radical/reactionary, and inclusive’exclusive.

DAVID GAUNTLET- IDENTITY

Fluidity of identity– Gauntlet comments on how someone’s identity can change because of how men and woman are being represented in media. Identity is always changing and people are adapting to new cultural norms. He now says we have a “greater diversity of identities”. Fluidity of identity means that a persons identity is always changing and they aren’t just one way or have one personality trait.

Constructed identity– This is when people build up their identity and it slightly changes, depending on their peers/audiences. men and women for example are becoming more balanced and there is also no longer a specific gender, people classify themselves as ‘they’ and that is the identity our generation has allowed people to do. Magazines, Movies or the opinion leaders who dominate our society (influencers, celebs) all help us to “construct” this identity for ourselves suggesting ways of living by acting on their advice or recognising ourselves in a character of a film.

Negotiated identity– A negotiated identity is a balance between our own desires and meeting the expectations of others. it is us showing how we balance or different identities around others.

Collective identity– Means that we refer to our sense of belonging to group, weather that be out of a shared interest/experience or even something in common. Our desire to engage with others and “fit in”. These groups could be social, religious, occupational or gendered.

Harry styles article- aim to bring and spread joy

Harry Styles ‘is adamant that his venture is less like a celebrity venture and is more of a celebrity endorsement’ Harry styles stated that he doesn’t think that “putting someone’s face on something sells a bad product”- shows identity isn’t fixed.

Judith Butler

“repetition of acts”

“repeated performance”

Judith Butler at home notes:

Judith Butler is a philosopher and gender theorist whose work has influenced political philosophy, ethics, and the fields of third-wave feminism, queer theory, and literary theory. Butler is best known for her book “Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity”. In this book she explores and challenges the existing “feminist model” and how it has defined the female gender. In a historical context, Butler says that we have viewed gender in a binary fashion. This means that men and women are divided into particular categories that are fixed and cannot be changed. She argues against this and says that “gender should be seen as a human attribute that shifts and changes”. Butler believes that a person is not as specific as their gender she says that there are not specific acts or qualities that specify your gender. She preaches that gender is a title and has nothing to do with your actions or the decisions you make. To create identity, she thinks that you can change your gender and strive off of you as a person without having to follow specific gendered stereotypes. Butler writes to break the gender stereotypes and create counter types to involve and suit everyone instead people being tied down to specifically male or female. For example, football isn’t just for men and netball isn’t just for woman.

Maybelline & Score at home notes:

Maybelline:

When advertising their products, they always use females in their adverts. This is because females are the ones to use it the most, more than men. It’s seen as a female brand due to the repetitive acts of one gender, however all types of people wear makeup, for example, celebrities like Johnny Depp and Boy George have used and continue to use eyeliner when turning up to social events and shows. Males who act on stage and screen need to wear foundation and blusher too.

Score:

It advertises the idea that if you shave you will be more attractive and “get what you’ve always wanted”. This is seen as a product for males and that men should be buying it, however just because it’s a shaving cream, it doesn’t mean it is only for men, just because men use shaving cream, doesn’t mean woman don’t. The male gaze is attracted to the women in this product as they are in provocative and ripped clothing. The woman seen in the score advert seem to be carrying the man who has recently shaved using the product, as well as this they are trying to touch, stroke and feel the man. This can be seen as a sexist, stereotypical representation of woman as it shows that they bow down and treat men like kings when they are attractive/using the product advertised. This is clearly a repetitive theme used in adverts still to this day.

Judith Butler quotes

“Audiences learn how to perform gender via the media.” – The media in today’s society constructs our own gender identity for us.

“our gendered identities are not naturally given but constructed through repetition and ritual.” – This shows that this is how we act because it is a fixed stereotype given by society.

“Alternatives to the gender binary exist but are presented as subversive.” – Genders other than male and female exist but are seen as disruptive.

“Society constructs a binary view of gender” – A binary view is a social construct made up of two parts that are framed as complete opposites (e.g. male and female). This is slowly developing and changing, making the world have more fluidity of identity to consolidate the way people want themselves to be viewed by society.

David Gauntlet quotes

“Audiences realise they can change their identities” – They can be whoever they choose to be at anytime without being held back by society.

“The media provides a range of products in which a huge diversity of identities is portrayed.” – In society, there are many people who choose to present themselves with a variety of identities to suit themselves and make themselves content.

“The media provides a range of products in which a huge diversity of identities is portrayed.” – In our society there is a huge amount of individuals who portray themselves with a varies of different identities.

“Audiences are in control of the media – adapting and assimilating ideas about themselves through the various representation that the media presents.” – illustrating how audiences are collectively adapting cultural norms and adapting themselves to fit in to society.

Feminist Critical Thinking

The Male Gaze- Laura Mulvey

Toril Moi- Feminist = a political position Female = a matter of biology Feminine = a set of culturally defined characteristics

1st Wave Feminism

‘sexism was coined by analogy with the term racism in the American civil rights movement in the early 1960s. Defined simply, sexism refers to the systematic ways in which men and women are brought up to view each other antagonistically, on the assumption that the male is always superior to the female‘(Michelene Wandor 1981:13)

2nd Wave Feminism

‘the feminist literary criticism of today is the product of the women’s movement of the 1960’s’(Barry 2017:123)

3rd Wave Feminism -Raunch Culture

‘rebellion of younger women against what was perceived as the prescriptive, pushy and ‘sex negative’ approach of older feminists.’ (344)Barker and Jane (2016 p. 344)

According to Barker and Jane (2016), third wave feminism, which is regarded as having begun in the mid-90’s has following recognisable characteristics:

• an emphasis on the differences among women due to race, ethnicity, class, nationality, religion
• individual and do-it-yourself (DIY) tactics
• fluid and multiple subject positions and identities
• cyberactivism
• the reappropriation of derogatory terms such as ‘slut’ and ‘bitch’ for liberatory purposes
• sex positivity

3rd to 4th wave feminist critical thinking

The shift in critical feminist studies that reconciles exploitation against empowerment illustrates the shift in feminist thinking towards the 3rd Wave of feminist thought, see for example, groups such as Third Wave Foundation.

.

Judith Butler: ‘gender as performance’

identity can be a site of contest and revision‘Butler (2004:19)

Hook: Multicultural Intersectionality

As Barker and Jane note, ‘black feminists have pointed ot the differences between black and white women’s experiences, cultural representations and interests’ (2016:346). In other words, arguments around gender also intersect with postcolonial arguments around ‘power relationships between black and white women’. So that ‘in a postcolonial context, women carry the double burden of being colonized by imperial powers and subordinated by colonial and native men’ (ibid).

Queer Theory

In the UK the pioneering academic presence in queer studies was the Centre for Sexual Dissedence in the English department at Sussex University, founded by Alan Sinfield and Johnathon Dollimore in 1990 (Barry: 141). In terms of applying queer theory to feminist critical thought, Judith Butler, among others expressed doubt over the reductionist, essentialist, approach towards the binary oppositions presented in terms of: male/female; feminine/masculine, man/woman. Arguing, that this is too simple and does not account for the internal differences that distinguishes different forms of gender identity, which according to Butler ‘tend to be instruments of regulatory regimes . . . normalising categories of oppressive structures‘ (14:2004).

• Feminist = a political position
• Female = a matter of biology
• Feminine = a set of culturally defined characteristics

‘sexism was coined by analogy with the term racism in the American civil rights movement in the early 1960s. Defined simply, sexism refers to the systematic ways in which men and women are brought up to view each other antagonistically, on the assumption that the male is always superior to the female‘(Michelene Wandor 1981:13)

1st wave feminism included the facts of womens rights not being equal to men’s and the lack of inequality.~ Barry

2nd wave feminism during counter cultural movements becoming more prominent and pronounced.

‘the feminist literary criticism of today is the product of the women’s movement of the 1960’s’(Barry 2017:123)

‘rebellion of younger women against what was perceived as the prescriptive, pushy and ‘sex negative’ approach of older feminists.’ (344)Barker and Jane (2016 p. 344)

‘a product of the unresolved feminist sex wars – the conflict between the women’s movement and the sexual revolution‘ .Ariel Levy (2006:74)

Raunch culture is the sexualised performance of women in the media that can play into male stereotypes of women as highly sexually available, where its performers believe they are powerful owners of their own sexuality’Hendry & Stephenson (2018:50)

you cannot ‘understand Black women’s experiences of discrimination by thinking separately about sex discrimination and race discrimination’ (ibid)Sigle-Rushton & Lindström, 2013 p131

identity can be a site of contest and revision‘Butler (2004:19)

‘all this should not be seen as a straightforward displacement of dominant conservative attitudes‘ .(Johnathon Dollimore 1983:59)

characteristics of third wave feminism~ (barker and Jane)~

• an emphasis on the differences among women due to race, ethnicity, class, nationality, religion
• individual and do-it-yourself (DIY) tactics
• fluid and multiple subject positions and identities
• cyberactivism
• the reappropriation of derogatory terms such as ‘slut’ and ‘bitch’ for liberatory purposes
• sex positivity

The report of the Leveson Inquiry into the culture, practices and ethics of the press was published ten years ago. It was half-success and a half-failure

The successful part was the evidence stage, where a huge amount of evidence was placed into the public domain about the culture, practices and ethics of the press that would have not been placed into the public domain, but for the inquiry.

The Leveson inquiry was a judicial public inquiry into the culture, practices and ethics of the British press following the News International phone hacking scandal, chaired by Lord Justice Leveson, who was appointed in July 2011. A series of public hearings were held throughout 2011 and 2012.

The MALE GAZE – Laura Mulvey – ways of seeing

Jean Kilbourne –  looked at visual narrative media / culture, primarily in terms of advertising.

According to Barker and Jane (2016), third wave feminism, which is regarded as having begun in the mid-90’s.

60s – second wave feminism