Key Terms: ● Hegemonic: dominant, ruling-class, power-holders ● Hegemonic culture: the dominant culture ● Cultural hegemony: power, rule, or domination maintained by ideological and cultural means. ● Ideology: worldview – beliefs, assumptions and values
When writing in the 1930s Gramsci researched why so many people followed and believed in fascist Germany.
It became the idea about hegemony, where more powerful people would change peoples views and imbedded their own political views deep into their culture as the easiest way to make someone believe in such extreme views is to access their emotional and mental state and to get them to truly believe in what they are told, which is done through this hegemony. —–>
Cultural hegemony functions by framing the ideologies of the dominant social group as the only legitimate ideology
The ideologies of the dominant group are expressed and maintained through its economic, political, moral, and social institutions (like the education system and the media).
As a result, oppressed groups believe that the social and economic conditions of society are natural and inevitable, rather than created by the dominant group.
Do you remember the good old days before the Ghost Town? – Magazine
Context:
The Specials, a band of the immediate post-punk period.
It was a track which bottled the discord, racial tensions and societal breakdown happening in the UK that summer.
GT music video was directed by Barney Bubbles
Day before GT reached no1, Britain erupted:
Had been riots in Brixton the previous month, sparked by a new police stop-and-search policy named Operation Swamp 81 after Margaret Thatcher‘s 1978 assertion that the UK ‘might be rather swamped by people of a different culture‘:
943 people – majority black – were stopped by plainclothes officers in 6 days.
The music video as said by Horace Panter: an original Special
I think the music video works (a) ‘because it was done in the middle of the night with all the brooding and menace that comes with the dark.
(b) ‘when dawn finally broke and we drove through the City district, there was nobody else around. The political/social context of the song didn’t really materialise until the Brixton/Toxteth/Handsworth riots in July 1981, by which time the song was No.1 in the singles charts.
Lara Croft is the dominant signifier on the front cover
Paradigm of signifiers relating to action, adventure and violence
Iconic signs such as a gun, rope, gloves and a backpack create connotations of a more masculine woman which counteracts the stereotype of women and femininity. – the gun also implies the basic stock types of ‘Good guy vs Bad guy’
Use of the colour gold could be a symbolic sign linking towards treasure and wealth whilst also implying theft
The coding engraved into the stone on the back cover could be representing a different language – typically a non-English speaking country This also creates the sense of ‘the other’ without specifically othering a specific country
The age rating is a denotation as it warns customers the game may be inappropriate for ages younger
Language links to Roland Barthes, C.S. Pierce and Ferdinand de Saussure
Representation:
The dominant signifier is a reactionary representation of women as the lack of clothing worn represents the over-sexualisation of women and women in all media platforms. Her features are also exaggerated and accentuated through the use of tightly fitted clothing which creates unrealistic standards and ideologies of women for both genders to look up to. This can increase anxieties around body image and be damaging for young girls growing up. This also teaches girls and women to base their worth off the validation they receive from their body appearance, as both genders will learn that is socially acceptable to objectify women and to compare women to others. Furthermore, this will create and even bigger gender divide as it creates a lack of understanding for other connections other than physical. Camera positioning also contributes to the way in which women are perceived, women within video games are often seen with their features in shot at all angles whilst men are not. The characteristics also vary as women are seen to ‘saunter’ with some sassy walk and men are seen to walk ‘normally’ which shows that even within a video game woman are ‘seductive’. (Feminist frequency videos) However, Tomb Raider also provides a contrasting representation of women as the dominant signifier is female rather than male. Which countertypes to the usual ‘damsel-in-distress’ stereotype of women in video games- or even sometimes they are the ‘trophy’.
Representation links to Laura Mulvey (Male Gaze) and John Berger (Ways of Seeing) + (Feminist critical thinking)
Genre:
Tomb raider’s genre consists of action and adventure. Steve Neale talks about the repetition and differences within genre and weather they follow the typical conventions. Whilst Tomb Raider does follow the typical genre conventions featuring themes of violence however it does challenge the stereotypical male lead by utilising a main character as female, which serves to maintain interest in an evolving genre. The game utilises a third-person perspective which allows the audience to look around the character without her moving.
Narrative:
Perhaps the most poignant action code is the fatal battle between Lara and Larson. In this quick time event, the player takes limited control of the character and follows the on-screen prompts to shoot Larson. Each button press seems more intimate than the last. It’s clear from the softer music and Lara’s facial expressions that she regrets having to kill the henchman.
While these hermeneutic and proairetic codes provide the internal chronology of the narrative, the representation of the hero and villain is the most obvious example of Barthes’ definition of a symbolic code. Of course, Natla is dressed in a black suit – the colour code connoting her evil intent – and Lara is in her blue top. This simple binary opposition is also established by their different hair colour and accents.
When the player takes control of the avatar we are already in the disequilibrium stage. The player must overcome obstacles, puzzle and fight beasts in order to repair the disequilibrium and create a new equilibrium linking to Todorov’s narratology theory.
Audience:
Albert Bandura’s investigations demonstrated a link between young people watching violence on television and then expressing deviant behaviour in real life. The psychologist called this process symbolic modelling “Tomb Raider: Anniversary” is an action-adventure game which rewards violence because the players use their weapons to overcome the obstacles and save the planet. That final conflict with Larson is quite direct and emotional because it is performed as a quick time event where you make a clear and conscious decision to kill the character.
We can also link this to George Gerbner and his cultivation theory and mean world index as Tomb Raider exposes players to a series of violence. Where children may be at risk of perceiving the world as more violent then reality.
Industry:
[The original “Tomb Raider” was the first game developed by Core Design. The independent company was acquired by Eidos Interactive 1996 who helped finance their projects. After further mergers and acquisitions, Eidos Interactive is now a British subsidiary of Square Enix – a Japanese entertainment conglomerate.
This level of consolidation is typical of the concentration of media ownership identified by David Hesmondhalgh who was eager to highlight how the cultural industries were dominated by a very small number of firms. Although this gives the conglomerates incredible power, some critics would also argue this business model enables the creation of increasingly complex and financially risky games. For example, Core Design needed substantial funding to complete “Tomb Raider” or the game would never have left the design board.
It is also worth noting Eidos and Sony worked together to make “Tomb Raider” exclusive to the new PlayStation console rather than developing the game for the Nintendo or Sega platforms. This marketing strategy, which Hesmondhalgh called artificial scarcity, certainly helped the PlayStation brand to dominate the industry.
The computer game industry is one of the largest sectors in the entertainment business. It might be bigger than Holywood, but there are still lots of financial and legal pressures. “Tomb Raider: Anniversary” is a good illustration of the three formatting techniques used by companies to improve their chances of success.
First, it uses the iconography of action-adventure which will appeal to audiences who are already familiar with the genre. Third-person shooters are also incredibly popular with players. Lara Croft has developed into a cultural icon with her own fanbase, so the game can rely on her star power. Finally, franchises are easier to promote because the intellectual property is firmly established and there will an audience eager for the next instalment.
Square Enix reported the game sold 1.3 million copies worldwide, falling short of the return from the previous Tomb Raider games. It’s a risky business.]
Title of the game suggests themes of space and/or science fiction – Pun for ‘meteoroid’
The iconic sign of a gun, like Tomb Raider, also implies violence
The dominant signifier is a girl (Samus Aran); however, this isn’t obvious as on the main cover she is disguised in an over-sized space suit.
Indexical signifiers such as mathematics related coding, numbers and diagrams and shapes, create a myth that displays links to action, suspense and a quest.
The symbolic sign of the white-like highlight that contours the dominant signifier, could symbolise innocence or power and goodness. – connotating to the fact that she is the ‘Good guy’
Language links to Roland Barthes, C.S. Pierce and Ferdinand de Saussure
Representation:
This character counteracts the stereotypical representation, demonstrating a radical presentation of women and video games. The character’s appearance is not revealed until the last part of the game which helps to enhance a sense of freedom from the player as they can imagine/perceive the character to fit themselves. It is also implied the relationship between fictional characters and our factual lives are to do with the influence of media from a young age. Alike Tomb Raider, the dominant signifier is female which is a radical representation of women as it shows women in a more masculine dominated area. It helps to break the stereotype of women being the weaker gender or at least less capable in comparison to men. However, at the end of the game, Samus Aran is revealed wearing a blue body suit, in which, her body is majorly exaggerated and enhanced. Presenting an idealistic and non-realistic body type. This refreshing presentation is snatched away and the game, like so many others, fall into the archaic ways of appealing to the Male Gaze as a sales strategy.
Representation links to Laura Mulvey (Male Gaze) and John Berger (Ways of Seeing) + (Feminist critical thinking)
Genre:
Metroid is a hybrid genre due to its feature of action and adventure, horror and sci-fi. Steve Neale says there’s an ‘interplay of codes’ which refers to all the features connoting to a genre which help to convey attitudes and beliefs on an ideological world. An example in Metroid is ‘If you weren’t afraid of the dark before, you will be.’ which was a tagline used in marketing the game. It is reassuring for the audience to be able to recognise these codes within the game, such as violence, fictional worlds, powers, and parallel universes are all genre conventions of sci-fi and action. However the differences within this game also helps to entice/engage audiences.
Narrative:
The main character, Samus Aran, serves as the stock character of the hero as she goes on a rescue mission to find her missing troops. Here we can see Todorov’s narratology theory containing the structure of equilibrium, disequilibrium, recognition, resolution and new equilibrium. The threat posed by the bad guys is the disequilibrium, she then flies across three planets to collect a light and return it to it’s rightful place which serves as the repair that will create peace and a new equilibrium. The game also shows Levi Strauss’ binary oppositions between the characters. As in order to have Samus Aran as the hero that foreshadows there must be a villan which interweaves with Propp’s stock characters.
Audience:
Scanning through the game, most people would assume the target audience is mainly male because of the stereotypical representations of male and female games and the symbolic link between colours such as blue and pink that are associated with gender. An advert that was used to market the game also only featured two young boys playing the game, this also connotes that the primary target audience is male. Nintendo also called their controller the ‘Game Boy’ which would also suggest a gender bias. However, an industry historical review reported that more females were becoming “video game fans” and that 27 per cent of NES players in 1988 were female. The video game is regulated by PEGI and rated a 12 due to the features of violence.
Although we are exploring a virtual world full of ridiculous signifiers, audiences are still learning values and behaviours from a game which celebrates violence. In the development of his cultivation theory, George Gerbner included cartoon depictions of violence in his research because they resonated with the audience. He says the more someone is exposed to something the more they start to recognise it and believe the world is a far more dangerous place then it really is which links to his second theory of mean world index. Aether is a fictional planet. There was no catastrophic meteor. But the violence in the game feels real to a player immersed in that experience especially as it is played through first person which still creates the same tension and adrenaline as someone living in that experience. Here we can see the links to hyperreality and simulation that connotes to Baudrillard’s theory. Albert Bandura also drew attention to television as a socialising agent. Through a process of symbolic modelling, we copy the behaviour we see on the screen, especially if there is positive reinforcement. “Metroid Prime 2: Echoes” rewards players for their skill, gaining power ups and bonus content to defeat the bosses.
Industry:
As a Nintendo game Metroid is the product of one of a handful of conglomerates which dominate the video games industry, a context which means that the study of the industry raises issues which are central to contemporary media studies: • The structure of Nintendo as a company and its control of production, distribution and circulation • The use of digital platforms to expand the output and reach of the games demonstrates how institutions have responded to the impact of new technology. • Regulation of games through PEGI • Cultural industries including Hesmondhalgh
Social and Cultural contexts:
Metroid is a Japanese, sci-fi, action adventure video game developed by Nintendo. It is one of Nintendo’s most successful franchises with 11 games available across all of the company’s platforms. Metroid is a culturally significant game in the gaming universe due to its mix of style and tone which combines Super Mario Bros style platforming with darker content, but also due to the representation of the central character, Samus Aran. Aran is a bounty hunter whose gender identity has been the subject of controversy and debate, leading some commentators to identify the character as transgender reflecting contemporary social and cultural contexts.
Article:Why Diversity Matters – Links as to why media should include more diversity in their representations. These quotes are referring to the gaming industry.
‘ The industry traditionally projects an image that is young, white, straight and male’
‘Most games feature white protagonists’
‘A scene in Pakistan displays shop signs written in Arabic, even though Pakistani people speak English and Urdu, not Arabic’
This post is for students (and teachers) who would like some resources – videos, quotes, theorists, key texts, key words etc to help them think about the topic of POSTCOLONIALISM, which may appear in a range of creative, media, culture, communications, English, History and other courses.
Overall, this is a topic that concerns IDENTITY and REPRESENTATION. In other words, where does our identity come from? How is our identity formed? How do we understand our own identity and how is our identity represented in the local, national and global media? You can look at another post that looks at identity, representation and the self. But here it is specifically looking at identity and representation through the lens of Empire and Colonialism.
A style, type or category of entertainment. Often predictable.
Genre rests around a relationship between similarities and differences.
Genres are very important for institutions, audiences and industries.
“Producers are saddled with conventions and stereotypes, formulas and clichés and all of these limitations were codified in specific genres. This was the very foundation of the studio system and audiences love genre pictures” – this suggests that limitations are set out when attempting to create a film or moving image that will sell well, and there are difficulties in keeping similar ideas to fit the target audience, but making it slightly different so it isn’t boring or repetitive.
Steve Neale: “Genre is a repetition of differences and similarities to create different stories”
He argues that definitions and formations of genres are developed by media organisations. Furthermore it is seen that genres can change massively overtime, for example in 2002 Spider-man was released, which showed characters with super-human abilities to defeat villains with an opposing power, the films were seen to be comic like and colourful, whereas films from the exact same company like x-men were darker and more rough. But fast forward 20 years, action films are seen to have a lot more aspects of comedy and adventure in them to intrigue the viewers and keep the genre fresh and interesting.
This goes with Neales idea that genre keeps changing as society and humanity changes as well, film genre’s represent what is going on in the current moment in history, that could be opinions, events, politics, anything.
: A style or category of art, music, or literature.
People like to have a general idea of what film they are about to see. But audiences get bored with too much repetition; they like to see a genre change, and evolve by responding to contextual influences to do with the way society changes.
‘Genre’ is the relationship of similarities and differences.
‘Genre’ is really important for institutions and audiences.
As well as a genre, movies also often have sub-genres
‘. . . saddled with conventions and stereotypes, formulas and clichés and all of these limitations were codified in specific genres. This was the very foundation of the studio system and audiences love genre pictures . . .’
Scorcese, A personal Journey through American Cinema (1995)
This quote is saying that all genres are the same but different in some sort of way.
People like to have a general idea of what film they are about to see. But audiences get bored with too much repetition; they like to see a genre change, and evolve by responding to contextual influences to do with the way society changes.
‘the somewhat dubious assumption that genres shaped by the film industry are communicated completely and uniformly to audiences‘ (Altman 1999, p. 15)
Key Terms:
Steve Neale: Neale believes that films of a type (genre, like romance or horror) should include features that are similar, so the audience know what genre it is, but also include features that are different, to keep an audience interested. This is his theory of repetition and difference.
repertoire of elements: The repertoire of elements are key elements of a film that are consistently repeated throughout a genre. Each genre has its own repertoire of elements which defines it as that genre
verisimilitude: the appearance of being true or real.
construction of reality: Social Construction of Reality. The term social construction of reality refers to the theory that the way we present ourselves to other people is shaped partly by our interactions with others, as well as by our life experiences.
sub-genres: a genre that is part of a larger genre The series is part of the booming ”urban fantasy” subgenre, which features supernatural creatures interacting with ordinary humans in a contemporary city.— Jennifer Schuessler.
hybrid genres: Some media texts are hybrid genres, which means they share the conventions of more than one genre. For example Dr. Who is a sci-fi action-adventure drama and Strictly Come Dancing is a talent, reality and entertainment show. The Twilight films are a hybrid genre, combining horror, fantasy, teen and romance.
levels of verisimilitude: a theoretical concept that determines the level of truth in an assertion or hypothesis. It is also one of the most essential literary devices of fiction writing. Verisimilitude helps to promote a reader’s willing suspension of disbelief
iconography: the visual images and symbols used in a work of art or the study or interpretation of these.
Steve Neale
The work of Steve Neale is often referred to when discussing genre. One area he looks at, is the relationship between genre and audiences. For example, the idea of genre as an enabling mechanism to attract audiences based around predictable expectations.
Racial otherness- black communities are referred to as the ‘other’ race in white terms and see them as the people who commit crimes and incompatible with white british values.
Post-colonial melancholia- the deep rooted shame felt as a result of the loss of the British empire. In media the loss is deflected through nostalgia and anxieties surrounding british identity.
The story of UK race relations post W.W. 2- talks about the worries of immigrant behaviour in the post-war wave of immigration from the West Indies. Public associated these immigrants with the substandard living conditions.
Legacy of the empire- Gilroy suggests we live in “morbid culture of a once-imperial nation that has not been able to accept it’s inevitable loss of prestige”. British are undergoing a crisis of national identity. Empire immigrants and their descendants, is argued to be a visible representation of British power as it once was.
Ghost town was performed by The Specials, written by Jerry Dammers, produced by John Collins.
The song spent three weeks at number one and 10 weeks in total in the top 40 of the UK Singles Chart. Song released in 1981
Key Concepts: ● Cultural resistance ● Cultural hegemony- Antonio Gramsci, framing the ideologies of the dominant social group as the only legitimate ideology. ● Subcultural theory- The Birmingham School (1970s), looked at working class cultures like the teddy-boys, mods, skinheads, and punks – subcultures. Unified by shared tastes in fashion, music and ideology. They argued argued that the formation of subcultures offered young working class people a solution to the problems they were collectively experiencing in society
Context: ● Race Relations ● Thatcher’s Britain- British Nationality Act of 1981: introduced a series of increasingly tough immigration procedures and excluded Asian people from entering Britain. ● Rock Against Racism- RAR’s fusion of youth culture and politics has been widely celebrated for making politics fun. This fusion of politics and culture engaged disaffected white youth in the face of profound political and economic insecurity, class tensions and escalating racism. ● Rock Against Sexism- used punk as a vehicle to challenge sexism, promoting female musicians while challenging discrimination in the music industry between 1979 and 1982. 1970s saw a plethora of sexist song lyrics, record covers and band advertisements, many depicting violence towards women. ●2 Tone- a genre of British popular music, that fused punk with Jamaican reggae and ska music. Attracted the attention of right-wing youth. The bands had to tackle their own prejudices towards each other, highlighting the challenges of mixing different class, racial and educational backgrounds
Social, historical and cultural background
The video and song are part of a tradition of protest in popular music, in this case reflecting concern about the increased social tensions in the UK at the beginning of the 1980s.
Linked to the politics of Thatcherism
Racially diverse representations
Musical genre of ska
Representation of Britain’s emerging multiculturalism, is reinforced through the eclectic mix of stylistic influences
mix of black and white members, The Specials, too, encapsulated Britain’s burgeoning multiculturalism. The band’s 2 Tone record label gave its name to a genre which fused ska, reggae and new wave and, in turn, inspired a crisply attired youth movement.
uneasy mood of the general music
Caribbean immigrants brought ska to England, where it attracted a cult following. The factory town of Coventry in the British Midlands was a hot spot for ska activity, as large numbers of blacks settled there to work in the British auto industry.
lurking just beneath the “happy,” infectious dance beat were often chilling stories of the racial divisiveness and economic deprivation that characterized the dawning of the Thatcher era.
a cry out against injustice, against closed off opportunities by those who have pulled the ladder up and robbed the young, the poor, the white and black of their songs and their dancing, their futures. Drive round an empty city at dawn. Look at the empty flats.
See the streets before the bankers get there and after the cleaning ladies have gone. And put young, poor, disadvantaged people in that car. See how “Ghost Town” makes sense. Now.
Radio stations didnt want to play reggae music so the only way it would get heard is through handmade sound system
Musicians escaped Jamica as they just introduced guns and brought their music to england which became poular
Binary Oppositions is two opposite ‘things’ that are presented in such a way that you compare them with each other. An example of this is in Blinded by the Light by the representation of Pakistan versus English and a further example is in Bombshell by women versus men.
Binary oppositions means comparing and judging things off of two opposite words, for example; Good vs Evil, Young vs Old. It displays and shows the students opposite themes.
Within Blinded by the Light, its a binary opposite if English vs Pakistani, or his ideal job vs his dads ideal job.
Within Bombshell, the binary opposite would be men vs women.
Key idea: the political, personal and cultural are always intertwined.
Antonio Gramsci was an Italian philosopher in the 1930s, and he wrote about cultural hegemony.
Cultural hegemony: power, rule, or domination maintained by ideological and cultural means.
Cultural hegemony works by passing the beliefs and ideas of the most powerful people in society as the only morally correct and legitimate one.
This is done by expressing and maintaining the ideas through its economic, political, moral, and social institutions (like the education system and the media).
These institutions socialise people into accepting the norms, values and beliefs of the dominant social group.
The result of this is that society comes to believe that these ideas were not simply conjured up by people in power, but were created by some natural means and not fabricated.
Black Music as a Rebellious Notion
The lyrics of many reggae songs revolve around the black experience black history, black consciousness of economic and social deprivation, and a continuing enslavement in a racist ideology.
Reggae is often sung in Jamaican accents, emphasising a black subjectivity that is independent from white hegemony and offering a method of rebellion from the racist viewpoints offered by the white people inhabiting Britain.
Generally, black music brought forward ideas about challenging what Gilroy has termed, ‘the capitalist system of racial exploitation and domination’.
Britain’s streets erupted into rioting the day before Ghost Town reached number one in the charts. This was due to Ghost Town being released on 20 June 1981 against a backdrop of rising unemployment and it expressed the mood of the early days of Thatcher’s Britain for many.
“It was clear that something was very, very, wrong,” the song’s writer, Jerry Dammers, has said in an interview with the BBC.
Neville Staple (vocalist) said in Ghost Town that there was “too much fighting on the dance floor” which he sang from personal experience. This was closely related to the riots and violence which was occurring in Britain at this time, particularly because of the cultural hegemony involving black people who had migrated to Britain after the second world war. It was also linked with the rising unemployment rates in Britain at the time, particularly because of the work of Margaret Thatcher, the prime minister at the time who had closed the doors of a lot of factories, stripping many people of their jobs.
Paul Gilroy explores the construction of racial ‘otherness’ as an underlying presence within print media reportage during the 1970s and 1980s, arguing that criminalised representations of black males regularly stigmatised the black community. and set a bad example for the black community as a whole leading to racism and unfair treatment.
‘Ghost Town’ is a haunting 1981 protest song that still makes sense today
It was The Specials’ last song before splitting up and reforming as The Special AKA and stayed at the top of the UK charts for three weeks.
The music video was directed by Barney Bubbles and filmed in the East End of London, Blackwell Tunnel and a before-hours City of London.
The fact that this music video is a Ska track relates to the idea that Britain has entered a state of multiculturalism in that Ska is a mix of reggae (Jamaican style music) and punk (white style rock music) and this represents how black and white people were intertwined at the time of the song’s release.
Todorov can be linked to Ghost Town in many ways. One of these is the idea that there is a beginning, middle and end to the music video as they start off in the tunnel in the beginning, enter the derelict city in the middle, and then return back to the tunnel at the end. I think this could represent the journey of many people coming from overseas to Britain at the time of the music video’s release, in that they were coming through the tunnel to get into Britain, they experienced harsh conditions while in Britain, and then left it, going back through the tunnel perhaps through the means of death, or perhaps imprisonment due to the cultural hegemony in effect at the time.
Levi-Strauss can be linked to Ghost Town in that binary oppositions are often hard to consider. For example, it is often unclear whether the music video is of a truly “black” or “white” nature, as many contrasting characters feature. However, there are some binary opposites that very clearly and obvious relate to ghost town, such as employed and unemployed being the latter.
Summed Up
Neville Staples – “Too much fighting on the dance floor” – Fighting and riots at the time because of unemployment – Thatcher and cultural hegemony as described by Gramsci involving black people.
Gilroy – “Racial Otherness” – Criminalised representations of black males set a bad example for the black community – racism, poor treatment.
Gilroy also describes “Postcolonial melancholia” – Idea that people from around the world in Britain are living reminders of the power Britain once had.
Genre of ghost town is Ska, genre is a repertoire of elements described by Neale – mix of reggae and punk music – Links to how black (Reggae) and white (Punk) people were constantly intertwined at the time whether they liked it or not.
Todorov – Beginning middle and end – Going through tunnel, into city and out via tunnel – journey of people from around the world – coming through tunnel into Britain, receiving harsh treatment in derelict city and exiting from Britain through the tunnel via death or perhaps imprisonment.
