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EXAM STRUCTURE

Paper One

QuestionAssessment
01UNSEEN PRODUCT: Semiotics, Representation, Language (8)
02UNSEEN PRODUCT + CSP: Semiotics, Representation, Language (12)
03CONTEXT + CSP: Representation, Language (9)
04THEORY + CSP: Representation, Language (20)
05.1MULTIPLE CHOICE (TERMINOLOGY): Industries, Audience (3)
05.2DEFINE (THEORY/TERMINOLOGY): Industries, Audience (3)
06CONTEXT + CSP: Industries, Audience (9)
07STATEMENT (ARGUMENT) + CSP: Industries, Audience (20)

Paper Two

QuestionAssessment
01UNSEEN PRODUCT (WITH KEY CONCEPT): Semiotics, Language (9)
02CSP + THEORY: Language, Representation, Audience, Institution (25)
03STATEMENT (ARGUEMENT) + CSP: Language, Representation, Audience, Institution (25)
04STATEMENT (ARGUEMENT) + CSP: Language, Representation, Audience, Institution (25)

Past Questions – Paper 1

CSP Past Questions
Score (Paper 1, Section A)– ‘How useful is Stuart Hall’s theory of encoding and decoding in analysing the meaning of the Score hair cream CSP?’

– “Judith Butler describes gender as an identity instituted through a stylized repetition of box
acts”. In other words it is something learnt through repeated performance.
How useful is this idea in understanding how gender is represented in marketing and advertising products? Refer in detail to the Close Study Products Maybelline ‘That Boss Life part 1’ and the Score hair cream advert.’

– Explain how representations of power within media products reflect their social and cultural contexts.
You should refer to the Close Study Product Score and Figure 1 to support your answer.

– How valid are Baudrillard’s ideas of simulation and hyperreality to understanding the media?
You should refer to the Close Study Products Score and Maybelline to support your answer.

– To what extent can the Score advert be seen as an example of the male gaze?

-Explain how representations of stereotypes within media products reflect their social and historical contexts. You should refer to the Close Study Product Score and Figure 1 to support your
answer.
Maybelline (Paper 1, Section A)– ‘How do representations of gender reflect contemporary social and cultural contexts?’

– “Judith Butler describes gender as an identity instituted through a stylized repetition of box
acts”. In other words it is something learnt through repeated performance.
How useful is this idea in understanding how gender is represented in marketing and advertising products? Refer in detail to the Close Study Products Maybelline ‘That Boss Life part 1’ and the Score hair cream advert.’

– How valid are Baudrillard’s ideas of simulation and hyperreality to understanding the media?
You should refer to the Close Study Products Score and Maybelline to support your answer.

– To what extent does the Close Study Product Maybelline ‘That Boss Life part 1’ use cultural codes to reflect society’s values.
Ghost Town (Paper 1, Section A)– ‘Paul Gilroy has identified the emergence of a Black Atlantic culture. He argues that the themes and techniques go beyond ethnicity and nationality to produce something new. How valid is Gilroy’s argument? You should refer to your music video Close Study Products, Ghost Town and Letter to the Free.’

– Explain how economic and political contexts influence the ways in which media products represent reality. You should refer to the Close Study Product Ghost Town and Figure 1 to support your answer.
Letter to the Free (Paper 1, Section A)– “Paul Gilroy has identified the emergence of a Black Atlantic culture. He argues that the themes and techniques go beyond ethnicity and nationality to produce something new.” How valid is Gilroy’s argument? You should refer to your music video Close Study Products, Ghost Town and Letter to the Free.

– Explain how representations of musical artists and their work communicate information about their cultural and political contexts. Your answer should refer to Figure 1 and the Close Study Product, Common’s Letter to the Free.

– To what extent is Common’s Letter to the Free ideological?

– Steve Neale’s summary of genre theory includes consideration of ideas such as sub-genre, hybridity and ‘genre as cultural category’. How valid are Neale’s ideas when analysing media products? You should refer to the music video Close Study Product Letter to the Free.

– Paul Gilroy claims that ethnic identity is a product of Double Consciousness. How valid is this claim? You should refer to the Close Study Product Letter to the
Free in your response.

Blinded by the Light (Paper 1, Section B)– Explain how low-budget British films are marketed and distributed to global audiences. You should refer to the Close Study Product Blinded by the Light to support your answer.
The Daily Mail (Paper 1, Section B)– “Ideology can be defined as a collection of values and beliefs.”
To what extent do media products target audiences by constructing an ideological view of the world? You should refer to your newspaper Close Study Products, The i and The Daily Mail.’

– Explain how newspapers respond to and shape contemporary social and cultural contexts.
You should refer to the Close Study Product the Daily Mail to support your answer.
The i (Paper 1, Section B)– “Ideology can be defined as a collection of values and beliefs.” To what extent do media products target audiences by constructing an ideological view of the world? You should refer to your newspaper Close Study Products, The i and The Daily Mail.
War of the Worlds (Paper 1, Section B)– “Media audiences always respond to media products in the way that producers intended.”
To what extent do you agree with this statement? In your answer, refer to your Close Study Products War of the Worlds (1938) and Newsbeat (BBC Radio 1).

– Explain how historical contexts influence how audiences respond to media products. You should refer to the Close Study Product The War of the Worlds to support your answer.

– “The relationship between producers and audiences has changed over time.” How far do you agree with this statement? You should refer to the Close Study
Products War of the Worlds and Newsbeat to support your answer.
Newsbeat (Paper 1, Section B)– “Media audiences always respond to media products in the way that producers intended.”
To what extent do you agree with this statement? In your answer, refer to your Close Study Products War of the Worlds (1938) and Newsbeat (BBC Radio 1).

– “The relationship between producers and audiences has changed over time.” How far do you agree with this statement? You should refer to the Close Study
Products War of the Worlds and Newsbeat to support your answer.

Past Questions – Paper 2

CSPPast Questions
No Offence (Paper 2)

– Cultivation theory argues that TV viewing had long term effects on the audience which were gradual but significant. How valid do you find the claims made by cultivation theory about audience
response? You should refer to the Television Close Study Products.

– To what extent do television producers attempt to target national and global audiences box through subject matter and distribution? Refer to both of your television Close Study Products to support your answer

– Hall’s theory of encoding and decoding argues that audiences do not simply accept the message encoded in a media product, but are involved in a negotiation with the producer in order to create meaning. How valid is Hall’s theory in explaining the relationship between the producer and the
audience of TV programmes? You should refer to both of your television Close Study Products to support your answer

– To what extent do media products suggest that society has gender equality? You should refer to both of your television Close Study Products to support
your answer
The Killing (Paper 2)– Cultivation theory argues that TV viewing had long term effects on the audience which were gradual but significant. How valid do you find the claims made by cultivation theory about audience
response? You should refer to the Television Close Study Products.

– To what extent do television producers attempt to target national and global audiences box through subject matter and distribution? Refer to both of your television Close Study Products to support your answer

– Hall’s theory of encoding and decoding argues that audiences do not simply accept the message encoded in a media product, but are involved in a negotiation with the producer in order to create meaning. How valid is Hall’s theory in explaining the relationship between the producer and the
audience of TV programmes? You should refer to both of your television Close Study Products to support your answer

– To what extent do media products suggest that society has gender equality? You should refer to both of your television Close Study Products to support
your answer
Teen Vogue (Paper 2)– Media products are shaped by the economic and political contexts in which they are created. To what extent does an analysis of your online, social and participatory Close Study Products (The Voice and Teen Vogue) support this view?

– Media producers must respond to changing social and cultural contexts to maintain audiences. To what extent does an analysis of the online Close Study Products The Voice and Teen Vogue support this view?
The Voice (Paper 2)– Media products are shaped by the economic and political contexts in which they are created. To what extent does an analysis of your online, social and participatory Close Study Products (The Voice and Teen Vogue) support this view?

– Media producers must respond to changing social and cultural contexts to maintain audiences. To what extent does an analysis of the online Close Study Products The Voice and Teen Vogue support this view?
Metroid: Prime 2 Echoes (Paper 2)– To what extent do video game makers target audiences through changing representations?
Refer to Close study products Tomb Raider Anniversary and Metroid Prime 2 Echoes to support your answer

– Media effects theories argue that the media has the power to shape the audience’s box thoughts and behaviour. How valid do you find the claims made by effects theories? You should refer to two of the
Close Study Products (Tomb Raider Anniversary, Metroid: Prime 2 Echoes, Sims Freeplay) in your answer

-The target audiences for video games change because of the historical and economic contexts in which they are produced. To what extent does an analysis of the Close Study Products Tomb Raider:
Anniversary and The Sims FreePlay support this statement?
Tomb Raider Anniversary (Paper 2)– To what extent do video game makers target audiences through changing representations?
Refer to Close study products Tomb Raider Anniversary and Metroid Prime 2 Echoes to support your answer

– Media effects theories argue that the media has the power to shape the audience’s box thoughts and behaviour. How valid do you find the claims made by effects theories? You should refer to two of the
Close Study Products (Tomb Raider Anniversary, Metroid: Prime 2 Echoes, Sims Freeplay) in your answer

– The target audiences for video games change because of the historical and economic contexts in which they are produced. To what extent does an analysis of the Close Study Products Tomb Raider:
Anniversary and The Sims FreePlay support this statement?
The Sims Freeplay (Paper 2)– Media effects theories argue that the media has the power to shape the audience’s box thoughts and behaviour. How valid do you find the claims made by effects theories? You should refer to two of the
Close Study Products (Tomb Raider Anniversary, Metroid: Prime 2 Echoes, Sims Freeplay) in your answer

– The target audiences for video games change because of the historical and economic contexts in which they are produced. To what extent does an analysis of the Close Study Products Tomb Raider:
Anniversary and The Sims FreePlay support this statement?
Men’s Health (Paper 2)– Media products often challenge the social and cultural contexts in which they are created. To what extent does an analysis of the Close Study Products (Men’s Health, Oh Comely) support this view?

– In a digital world, print magazines have little appeal.
To what extent do you agree with this statement?
You should refer to the magazine Close Study Products Oh Comely and Men’s Health to support your answer.

– Postcolonial theory suggests that media representations are shaped by the racial and
ethnic hierarchies that still exist in society. How valid is postcolonial theory in explaining the representations in magazines? You should refer to the magazine Close Study Products Oh Comely and Men’s Health
in your answer.
Oh Comely (Paper 2)– Media products often challenge the social and cultural contexts in which they are created. To what extent does an analysis of the Close Study Products (Men’s Health, Oh Comely) support this view?

– In a digital world, print magazines have little appeal.
To what extent do you agree with this statement?
You should refer to the magazine Close Study Products Oh Comely and Men’s Health to support your answer.

– Postcolonial theory suggests that media representations are shaped by the racial and
ethnic hierarchies that still exist in society. How valid is postcolonial theory in explaining the representations in magazines? You should refer to the magazine Close Study Products Oh Comely and Men’s Health
in your answer.

REVISION – THEORISTS

Barthes:

  • Semiotics, Signs (Index, Symbol, Icon)
  • Denotation VS Connotation
  • Mise-en-scene
  • Myths (Ideological effects)
  • Hermeneutic/ Proairetic codes

Strauss:

  • Binary oppositions
  • Encode/ Decode
  • Media constructs ideologies

Todorov:

  • Narrative theory
  • 3-part structure: Equilibrium, Disruption, New Equilibrium
  • Plot/Sub-plot
  • Flexi-narratives
  • Ideological meanings – Power of stories lie in deeper meanings

Propp:

  • Stock characters
  • 31 plot moments – Narratemes

Neale:

  • Genre
  • Repetition and difference
  • Sub-genres/ Genre hybridisation

Media Representation

Butler:

  • Gender as performance
  • Distinction: Sex/ Gender
  • Repeated acts

Gauntlett:

  • Identity: Constructed, Fluidity, Negotiated, Collective
  • Heteronormativity

REVISION – TERMINOLOGY

Media Language

Semiotics (Saussure)

Sign A representation of a physical object. “Signifier + Signified = Sign”
Signifier The sign that we ‘read’ and extract meaning from.
SignifiedThe meaning we extract from the signifier (sign).
Dominant SignifierThe most prominent ‘sign’.

Semiotics (Pierce)

IconHas a ‘close physical resemblance’ to what it signifies. Eg. A line drawing that looks like a TV
IndexHas some physical resemblance with what is signifies. Eg. Paw prints
CodeA system of signs, a group of symbols that represent something.
Symbol Has no resemblance between the signifier and the signified. Eg. Symbols that are used to identify gender.

Semiotics (Barthes)

SignificationThe representation of the meaning.
DenotationThe literal meaning of the sign.
ConnotationThe inferred or representational meaning of the sign.
MythHow words and images are systematically used to communicate cultural and political meanings.
ParadigmA set of signs that are similar and are connected but different.
SyntagmA sequence of signs that work together to create meaning.
AnchorageWords that accompany a sign and help to provide context and meaning associated with the sign.
IdeologyA body of ideas or set of beliefs that people have regarding different technologies.

Narratology

Narrative Codes
Narration
Diegesis
Quest narrative
Character types
Causality
Plot
Masterplot

Narratology (Todorov)

Narrative structure
Equilibrium
Disruption
New equilibrium

Narratology (Aristotle)

Anagnorisis
Pathos
Unity
Peripeteia
Catharsis

Genre (Neale)

Conventions and rules
Sub-genre
Hybridity
Genres of order and integration
Genre as cultural category

Structuralism (Strauss)

Binary oppositions
Mytheme
Cultural codes
Ideological reading
Deconstruction

Post-modernism

Pastiche
Bricolage
Intertextuality
Implosion

Post-modernism (Baudrillard)

Simulacra
Simulation
Hyperreality

BANDURA

Social Learning Theory

Modelling Effects

In the 1960’s, Bandura conducted a behaviour experiment to explore how when children witness a certain behaviour, they will replicate this.

In today’s society, this seems pretty obvious. So we can look at this idea in terms of how actions represented through the Media can have effect on their audiences.

Bandura called the behaviour we replicate from cinema or television; Symbolic Modelling. (PASSIVE AUDIENCES)


“Human behaviour is to a large extent, socially transmitted, either deliberately or inadvertently”

— Bandura (1973)

Video Violence

  • The media relies on violence to quickly engage audience attention
Attention factorsThe video game player can control avatars to carry out violent acts. This causes a direct correlation between a certain action having violent effects. This translates into the real world and individual behaviour.
Players are rewarded for violent actionsVideo game designers create a positive response to violent actions. For example, for so many kills in a game, the player would receive a certain score. This generates a negative action, positive response loop which feeds violent behaviour in the real world.
Violence is portrayed without moral justification or explanationViolent acts featured in video games are often unprovoked or lack justification (they are casual/normalized). Perhaps this could desensitise players to violence or the effects of violent acts in their lives.
Video games are immersive Video games are often played alone, without the input of others.
Video games are addictivePlaying video games for increased duration means that players are exposed to negative behaviours more often, this becomes addictive.
Realistic violenceGraphic designers have ways of making video games look even more realistic (or hyper-real). This means that the violent acts are similar to real life, meaning it is increasingly difficult to find the division between simulation and true being.

NEW MEDIA (EXAM PREP)

New Media Questions

  • Key ideas: Producers, changing social/cultural contexts, audiences

Teen Vogue

  • Owner = Conde Nast (‘a global media company that produces some of the world’s leading print, digital, video and social brands’) They “celebrate the extraordinary. Creativity and imagination are the lifeblood of all that we do. We are a media company for the future, with a remarkable past.”
  • First print edition = Spring 2002
  • Last print edition = 2017 when they ceased print publishing in favour for online articles through their website
  • They have shifted from stereotypical/ conventional content for young women to more societal/ideologically driven content which comments on issues regarding humanity and representation (see first and last print article and their move to online publishing)

The Voice

  • Owner = GV Media Group LTD
  • First print edition = 1982 launched at Notting Hill Carnival of that year
  • Audience statistics:
  • “The media bias” of the previous year’s civil unrest in Brixton was noticed by Val McCalla. So, at the 1982 Notting Hill Carnival, he launched The Voice because he “saw the need for a newspaper that would address the issues that mattered to British-born African-Caribbean people who were trying to stake their claim to the only country they had ever known.”
  • Linking to Paul Gilroy: It seems evident that ‘The Voice’ are ever trying to dispel negative stereotypes and views of diversity across the UK by giving a voice to Black people who share their experiences/stories/words for change. He too noticed the racial binaries that were present in the media saying that “Black communities are constructed as an ‘other’ to white culture and are associated with criminal activity and lawlessness”
  • Key ideas: Products, shaped by economic/political context

CSP – THE VOICE

Website: http://www.voice-online.co.uk/

Language

  • The newspaper originated in 1982, following a year of civil unrest throughout 1981.

Representation

https://edition.cnn.com/2020/10/25/media/the-voice-newspaper-black-history-month/index.html

  • “The media bias” of the previous year’s civil unrest in Brixton was noticed by Val McCalla. So, at the 1982 Notting Hill Carnival, he launched The Voice because he “saw the need for a newspaper that would address the issues that mattered to British-born African-Caribbean people who were trying to stake their claim to the only country they had ever known.”
  • Linking to Paul Gilroy: It seems evident that ‘The Voice’ are ever trying to dispel negative stereotypes and views of diversity across the UK by giving a voice to Black people who share their experiences/stories/words for change. He too noticed the racial binaries that were present in the media saying that “Black communities are constructed as an ‘other’ to white culture and are associated with criminal activity and lawlessness”
  • Compared to Black newspapers from the past who targeted Black immigrants, The Voice was originally keen to target the “second generation” who were born in Britain.
  • On their website, there is a link to a page called ‘Black British Voices’ which includes several articles that focus in on particular individuals and their ‘voice’

https://artsandculture.google.com/story/the-voice-britain-39-s-favourite-black-newspaper-the-voice/bwWxpyXvyvAJ6w?hl=en

Audience

  • The Voice’s target audience is “the African and Caribbean diaspora (movement of people from their geographical origin) in the UK” which make up 4.2% (2.4 million) of the UK population

Clay Shirky’s ideas on Mass Amateurisation:

  • Whilst The Voice has moved to a hybrid way of distribution (they still produce a monthly print edition although lots of their day to day news can be accessed through their website or social media channels
  • It is evident that they need to keep a younger audience through quick,easy viewing whilst also trying to appeal to an older demographic who have been loyal to the newspaper since its origins

Industries

  • The Voice – “Britain’s Favourite Black Newspaper” – was first published in 1982
  • It is produced in London, UK and is published each Thursday. From 2019, it began being published monthly
  • “The Voice is proud to champion diversity across the UK and celebrate black excellence in all industries”
  • Owned by GV Media Group Limited

https://www.independent.co.uk/news/media/is-the-voice-in-the-wilderness-9153401.html

CSP – SIMS FREEPLAY

Website: https://www.ea.com/en-gb/games/the-sims/the-sims-freeplay

Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/thesimsfreeplay/

Twitter: https://twitter.com/TheSimsFreePlay?ref_src=twsrc%5Egoogle%7Ctwcamp%5Eserp%7Ctwgr%5Eauthor

Language

  • Simulation
  • Players create account and are made to create their own avatar that they can control and ‘play’ as
  • They can ‘design’ this virtual character by changing skin tone, eye shape, hair style, outfit and body type to name a few.

Audience

This CSP can be discussed in relation to some general trends in the industry such as the gradual shift away from a heavily male-dominated target audience. Also, the reaction of some reviewers and regulators to The Sims FreePlay is indicative of wider concerns about the potentially negative influences that video games are claimed to exert on players, particularly young players.

Representation

  • Representations are quite idealistic. Promoting the American Dream, idealistic body types and a perfected version of life

Industries

  • The Sims FreePlay was developed by EA Mobile. Released on IOS in 2011
  • The game was later taken over by Firemonkeys Studios

Regulation:

Sims FreePlay is regulated by the BBFC – British Board of Film Classification. This is an independent organisation that regulates all computer games in the UK. It is rated 12 – because the game “may contain themes that are not suitable for younger children, such as the potential for violent fist fights and “woohoo!”.

https://www.newsweek.com/sims-freeplay-banned-china-saudi-arabia-egypt-lgbtq-996699

The computer game was banned in China, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Oman, Kuwait, Qatar and Egypt due to the games inclusion of LGBTQ and Non-Binary characters. The EA responded saying that “regional standards” were the reason for this ban. The Sims responded saying “We’ve always been proud that our in-game experiences embrace values as broad and diverse as our incredible Sims community. This has been important to us, as we know it is to you”

CSP – TEEN VOGUE

Teen Vogue Website
Facebook Page
Twitter Feed

“The young person’s guide to conquering (and saving) the world. Teen Vogue is the destination for the next generation of change-makers, arming young people with the information they need to shape the future.”

Teen Vogue Mission Statement
https://www.condenast.com/brands/teen-vogue/
  • Their focus takes a largely radical, feminist viewpoint which targets a young female audience
https://media-studies.com/teen-vogue-study-guide/
Teen Vogue – Spring 2002
  • Chaotic front cover, lots of anchorage to code for different topics within the magazine
  • Typical magazine style, similar to many in the early 2000’s
  • Signifier’s such as “New It Girl”, “The Sexy Boys of the WB”, “Who’s the Best Dressed?” suggests the content in the magazine lacks substance or major cultural importance. This is a contrast to their most recent print cover (almost 17 years later) which focuses on “Power, Activism and #BLACKGIRLMAGIC”, something much more constructive and useful to the young, impressionable audience
Teen Vogue – Dec 2019

Audience

Teen Vogue 2023 Media Kit

  • $221B – Spending Power
  • 1.8X – Fashion and Beauty Influentials
  • 70% – Female Demographic
  • 2 IN 3 – Gen Z or Millenials
  • 8.4M – Average Monthly Digital Uniques
  • 15.6M – Social Followers
  • 22.9M – Average Monthly Video Views

Industry

  • American company originally founded in 2003 through the means of print advertising.
  • It is a partnership company to VOGUE although this online publication is aimed at teenager
  • In 2015, Teen Vogue saw a decline in print sales so they started to move majority of content online. They also changed the course of their content (from articles focused on pop culture/celebrities to focus of politics and current affairs)
  • In 2017, Teen Vogue ceased print publishing

https://nypost.com/2016/11/07/teen-vogue-cuts-circulation-focuses-on-digital/

  • Teen Vogue is owned by Conde Nast (‘a global media company that produces some of the world’s leading print, digital, video and social brands’) They “celebrate the extraordinary. Creativity and imagination are the lifeblood of all that we do. We are a media company for the future, with a remarkable past.”
  • ‘Conde Nast’ owns companies such as Vanity Fair, GQ, The New Yorker, Vogue etc.

Language

Articles:

‘Black Immigrants in the United States Have Been Targeted by Trump’ by RUTH ETIESIT SAMUEL [2/11/2020]

‘Dissociative Identity Disorder on TikTok: Why More Teens Are Self-Diagnosing With DID Because of Social Media’ by LO STYX [27/01/2022]

‘Missouri State House’s Dress Code for Women Becomes Stricter’ by KELLY RISSMAN [17/01/2023]

Online, their is a wide scope of stories – from celebrity culture to important social issues/ points of discussion. There is hard news mixed with soft news. Appeals to many different audience objectives (some might be using the site to access superficial news whilst some are using it as a credited news source to learn about the world)

Ability to sign up with email to receive offers, newsletters to get stories first etc:

Local adverts that a personalised based on my web data, interests etc.

NEW MEDIA

AI (Artificial Intelligence)

  • The simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems.
  • AI systems include search engines, recommendation systems and algorithms, automated decision making systems, machines that can understand human speech

Change and Transformation

  1. The transformation of social interaction (audiences)
  2. The transformation of individual identity (audiences and representation)
  3. The transformation of institutional structures (industry)
  4. The changes in textual content and structure (language)
  5. The transformation of audience consumption

In summary, this could be described as the changing nature of symbolic interaction

Transformation of The Media

Traditionally, media was LINEAR and followed on from one element to the other in a logical sense. It was in a physical form meaning it was less instant. In this post-modern era, the media is NON-LINEAR, confusing, complex and random. Most previous media forms now have digital versions which are more improved and advanced. The need for less complex media has been removed from our daily life.

Key Ideas: The transformation of the media

  • Speed
  • Time
  • Share
  • Feedback
  • Space
  • Access
  • Storage
  • Connectivity
  • Participation
  • Discover
  • Retrieval
  • Adaptation
  • Knowledge

shareactivecreativehost
example or commentExpressing your own ideas, beliefs, knowledge on a platform for others to see/utilise

Eg. Sharing a post on social media is a way of inviting connectivity with others through comments etc.
story

re-connectpersonalisestream
example or commentA linear or non-linear
experiencestorescaleimmerse
example or comment
interfaceliveadaptbinge
example or commentThe idea of something being viewed as it is happening in real time. Rather than a representation of something that has previously taken place Changing yourself/attributes dependent on circumstances and environmentNetflix allows users to watch many episodes of shows whereas traditionally, television broadcast programmes periodically meaning viewers had to wait in-between
conversationre-performcirculateendless

example or comment