Aesthetics – The overall style and feel of a film including the lighting, mise en scene, colour palate and cinematography.

Aesthetics Terms 1 – Realism

• Verisimilitude – believability within the film; how convincing the world is to the audience.

Dune is a good example of verisimilitude as the sci-fi environment feels very fleshed out which makes it feels like it could be an existing world.

• Social realism – films that aim to depict the effects of environmental factors on the development of a character.

This Is England demonstrates how children can be very naïve and impressionable, especially when faced with something tragic like a father dying in war, which is ultimately what attracted Shaun to Combo’s views in the first place.

• Magic realism – depicting magic systems in a realistic way.

While Harry Potter is very much a fantasy series, the magic system doesn’t really feel like it has any flaws, as well as being very vast in terms of what it can do.

• Hyperrealism – a dramatic depiction of reality/gives it a ‘perfect’ feeling.

The Barbie film depicts life in a dramatic and exaggerated way, with the beginning of it suggesting that life in Barbie world is perfect.

Aesthetics Terms 2 – Visual style

• Iconography – the use of recurring symbols, visual motifs and themes to convey meaning and evoke emotion

Water is a recurring theme throughout Moonlight, that appears throughout all three parts of the film.

• Intertextual referencing – the use of ideas or themes from other pieces of media or literature

Alice Cooper is seen in Wayne’s World, appearing as himself. This happens again in Wayne’s World 2, where Aerosmith appear.

• Visual/sound motifs – a recurring story element acting as a way to highlight a film’s meaning.

The Imperial March is an iconic sound motif that occurs throughout the entire Star Wars franchise.

• Colour grading – manipulating the colour, tone and mood of a film to enhance the impact of the story.

Though Schindler’s List was filmed in 1993, they consistently film it in black and white. However, one little girl is shown to be wearing a red coat to represent children’s innocence, though it has been interpreted in many different ways.

• Auteur trademarks – when a filmmaker has complete creative control over a film and implements their visual style in other pieces of their work.

Wes Anderson’s iconic colourful style is recurring throughout a large majority of his work.

Aesthetic Terms 3 – Tone

• Pathos – a persuasion technique that aims to appeal to the audience by evoking the intended emotions, mainly sadness.

Up utilises pathos at multiple points throughout the film, but the most famous would be the montage scene of Carl’s life with Ellie before she dies.

• Bathos – an absurd or ineffective climax.

The ending of Monty Python and the Holy Grail could be considered bathos because it leads to a very unsatisfying climax.

• Suspense – a state of anticipation towards an outcome.

The Silence of the Lambs uses suspense throughout the film effectively.

• Comedy – a genre of film where the main emphasis is on humour.

Shaun of the Dead is a very highly rated British Comedy directed by Edgar Wright starring Simon Pegg.

• Dramatic irony – a situation in which the audience or reader has a better understanding of something than the characters themselves.

Everyone watching the film Tangled knows that Mother Gothel is not Rapunzel’s mother, but she’s managed to convince her that she is.

• Distancing effect (verfremdung) – techniques designed to distance the audience from emotional investment.

Dogville uses a distancing effect/alienation to prevent people from getting too emotionally invested.

• Postmodern humour – aims to undermine highly regarded expectations.

Pulp Fiction tells the story out of the ordinary and flips our expectations of film structures.

Young People

Shaun, as a young person is represented in this film as being a vulnerable and impressionable boy that can easily adapt to what others say to him. He is easily influenced by Combo’s ideologies which is a real representation of how so many real young people in the real world start to fall into far-right ideas. But at the end he shows that it is still possible for young people to change. Shaun is also seen as a victim of circumstance, of the social and political problems happening around him as he is rightly clueless.

Older People

Shaun’s mum throughout the film is the only parental figure seen that doesn’t manipulate Shaun’s vulnerability and constantly supports him. She can be seen as a positive light for Shaun, especially when she talks with Shaun about his dead father and offers help. She is seen as a responsible, caring mother.

This differs to Combo who, for Shaun, seems to fill in the void that Shaun’s biological father left when he passed away. Combo is represented as an adult who is angry and very outspoken- he doesn’t sway in his ideas and wants to spread them around. He may think of himself as a hero for Shaun, but actually he is a manipulative figure that used his authority due to his age to pick on Shaun’s insecurities and lack of a parent. He is not responsible, and is not a good representative for what an adult should be and do.

Class

All of the characters in This is England represent the lower working class. We see them navigate their childhoods while in this class and this is reflective of the director’s own experiences. For Shaun, we see the drawbacks of his own poverty reflected in the mise en scène in his bedroom- the chair as a bedside table, the dim lights and the décor in bad condition.

Black People

Milky is the victim of racism in This is England. He represents the views held by many English people in the 1980s, and when he is brutally beat up by Combo, we see the extent of the deep hatred. However, he explains how he has a good and big family around him, and him and Combo even find a point to relate on when they discuss music, but Combo’s racist views eventually prevails.

Aesthetic – refers to the overall style and theme of the film including the texture, this refers to the beauty of the film and how aesthetically pleasing it is looks wise

Realism

Verisimilitude – the believability of the world of the film (diegesis), how real it looks compared to the normal world.

Social Realism – films which reflect a range of environments and social issues

Magic Realism – films with a realistic tone containing fantastical events bringing old stories, myths and tales to modern relevance

Hyperreality – films where everything feels overly real, an exaggerated reality to the point where it becomes hard to believe it is real

Visual Style

Iconography – the use of recurring images and symbols in films to convey specific themes or evoke specific emotions and build the film’s narrative

Intertextual Referencing – when a film overlaps with another work of art (another film, work of literature or another art form)

Visual/Sound Motifs – recurring visual or sound element used throughout the film to create meanings and representations

Colour Grading – a way of manipulating and editing raw film to maintain colour tones through the film

Auteur Trademarks – when a film “author” or director who is in full control of the making of the movie utilises the same way of filming including camera shots and angles, themes and lighting throughout most of their work

Tone

Pathos – different objects, subjects or specific elements which convey an emotional appeal, making the audience convey a sense of pity or empathy

Bathos – an anti-climax in a film, when the audience expects something to happen and something usually more underwhelming happen

Suspense – usually in correlation with anxiousness and anticipation, the spectator not knowing when and how it is going to happen

Comedy – a genre of film which mostly focus on humours moments therefore making the audience laugh

Dramatic Irony – the significance of a character’s words or actions is clear to only the spectator but not the character itself

Distancing Effect – usually used in live plays, when the character breaks the “forth wall”, it is used to distance the audience from emotional involvement

Postmodern Humour – another style of comedy including other comedy features such as parodies, irony and including both high and low art styles

Aesthetics are the overall appearance, style and perception of a film. For example, the makeup or costumes worn, set design and props.

Aesthetics term 1: realism

Verisimilitude- The appearance of being true, believable or real

In This is England (Meadows 2007) the set design and use of location shooting creates an accurate and detailed image of 1983 England.

Social Realism- the aim to draw attention and recreate, social/political issues and critique those to blame. For example, showing poor conditions in the working class and critiquing capitalist views.

Of mice and men (Sinise 1992) include many political elements and give viewers an insight of America during the great depression following the Wall street crash in addition to the prominent social issues such as racism and sexism.

Magic Realism- Presenting a realistic detailed view incorporating magic or fantasy elements, often blurring the line between speculation and reality.

The Harry Potter franchise perfectly encapsulates the essence of magic in the real world while questioning if its fantasy fiction and reality.

Hyperreality- The lines between fantasy and reality are blurred and fantasy is well blended to the reality so there is no obvious distinction between them.

In Barbie (Gerwig 2023) fiction is morphed into reality as Barbie leaves her fantasy land and brings it to the real world.

Aesthetics term 2: Visual style

Iconography- The use of reoccurring visual symbols/images that convey specific themes or ideas, add to the plot and add emotion.

Intertextual referencing- Occurs when a movie overlaps with another art piece, such as a book, another film or a piece of music.

Visual/sound motifs- A reoccurring sound or visual symbol in a film that highlights the films plot or message its trying to portray. These visual symbols could be reoccurring objects, colours or shapes.

Colour grading- When raw film is edited and manipulated to create consistent colour tones throughout, like a filter to create a distinct colour pallet.

In Fantastic Mr Fox there is a prominent use of browns and oranges to create a clear, specific colour pallet to reflect the film

Auteur trademarks- When the film is clearly directed by a specific person based on a distinctive sign telling their work apart from other peoples.

Wes Anderson is an auteur as his style is unique and his work can be told apart from other films. He uses a specific narrative and visual style to make his work distinguishable.

Aesthetics term 3: Tone

Pathos- Appealing to audiences emotion

Bathos- Refers to the rhetorical anti-climax, transition from one topic to a vastly different one.

Suspense- Creation of a feeling of anticipation from the audience, this can be heightened by a stressful violent or emotive scene. Gives an effect similar to a cliff-hanger.

Comedy- Humorous, designed to make audiences smile and laugh.

Dramatic irony- When the audience know information the characters don’t, creating humour or suspense.

Distancing effect- Achieved when the audience cannot have the illusion of being an unseen spectator.

I think aesthetics refers to how a world or character is presented to the viewer and the story it tells through that. It refers to the overall style of the film and the feel of it and the themes it may present.

Realism

Verisimilitude in film is “similarity to the truth”- the appearance of something being true or real- and in film is how much the viewer can believe that something truly takes place in the film.

I put the Dead Poets Society (1989) because it is a good representation of being a student in a private school in the 60’s and just the timeframe of that period.

Social-Realism

This sub-genre of realism seeks to capture society in a specific and accurate way and aims to to draw attention to socio-political conditions of the working class to critique the power structures behind it.

I chose Billy Elliot (2000) as my example for social realism in a film because it includes a realist depiction of British people and society and it explores certain socio-political conditions such as the 1984’s miners strike, gender stereotypes and the problem of police violence.

Magic Realism

Magic-Realism is a genre that portrays fantastical events in a realistic tone. It works with tales such as fables, myths, and folk stories. However despite the fantasy elements, magic-realism maintains a realistic view of the world so well that in some cases it blurs the line of speculation and reality.

The Princess Bride (1987) is my example for magic realism because it has a wide variety of fantastical elements such as fairy tales, knights and magic, but it also maintains a heavily realistic tone throughout the whole movie and is not fully fantasy.

Hyper Realism

This is a genre in which what is real and what is fiction are seamlessly blended together so that there is no clear distinction between one ends and where another begins.

Visual Style

Iconography = This is the visual images and symbols used in a work of art or the study or interpretation of things. For example the lamb which represents Christ and the dove which represents the Holy Spirit.

Intertextual Referencing = This is the point where two works of art overlap- such as reusing its ideas and meanings and making it something of their own. Since art is so subjective it is very common for this to happen.

Visual/Sound Motifs = This is a recurring visual or sound that occurs in a film. This can help add story to the film or let the viewer be aware of a characters feelings.

Colour Grading = This involves adjusting and enhancing the colours and tones of a film to create a specific mood or atmosphere.

Auteur Trademarks = This is when a film-maker has a very distinctive and personal style that is reflected within their creative choices. This is also due to them having full authority over their films. There are many examples of this, such as Sofia Coppola’s focus on women with a pastel, elegant palette, Quentin Tarantino’s non-linear storytelling and sharp dialogue, and most distinctively Wes Anderson’s vibrant and quirky style:

Tone

Pathos = This is an appeal to an audience’s emotion- it purposely evoking strong emotions within them like anger or sadness. This can be in forms of inspirational music in the background or just dialogue.

Bathos = Bathos is a sudden, often humorous drop in tone during an anti-climax. It usually appears in satirical genres or used for intentional comedic effect.

Suspense = This is a common technique used in many films to evoke an audience’s excited anticipation about plot or conflict or to heighten an eerie, scary scene. It elevates tension and is a very good use of tone.

Comedy = Comedy in film is not only a genre but it is also used in other non-comedic films to elicit laughter from an audience and to lighten the mood in stressful moments. There can usually be a comedic-relief character that fills in this role. There are plenty examples of comedic films such as Step Brothers, 21 Jump Street, Zoolander and Airplane!

Dramatic Irony = Simply put, this is when the audience knows something that the characters in the film do not. An example would be a character in a horror going into a room where we know the killer awaits.

Distancing Effect (Verfremdung) = This is also known as “alienating an audience” and can also be shortened to the “v effect”. Invented by playwright Bertolt Brecht, he wanted to ‘distance’ the audience away from the action so that they could not feel emotionally invested in the characters but rather reach an intellectual understanding with them.

Postmodern Humour = Typically this refers to to humour that features jokes about serious topics like murder or war to make light of the topic. It is a fiction that deals with depressing complexities of modern life in a humorous tone. A film most known for this is Blade Runner (1982) by Ridley Scott.

aesthetic is the overall view and representation a person or place gives off due to its or their features such as clothes hair makeup etc.

realism

realism in film is the representation of realistic and authentic use of movement speech and setting, something the view can see and resonate with it being relatable.

verisimilitude: in film means the appearance being true or real.

eg- the realistic life’s of teenagers and their troubles highs and lows etc.

social realism: to give the audience a true sense of what the lives of these characters are like, and the social issues that are happening at the time.

eg- the events surrounding society ant its beliefs when this film was set.

magic realism: portrays fantastical events in an otherwise realistic tone

eg- the fantastical events within this film are shown to be realistic.

hyperreality: a condition in which what is real and what is fiction are seamlessly blended together so that there is no clear distinction between where one ends and the other begins.

eg- the idea that within Truman’s life none is entirely sure what real and what’s fake.

visual style: the visual style of a film is how its visuals evokes a emotional response to convey its mood or theme.

iconography: the use of recurring visual images and symbols in movies that convey specific themes, evoke emotions, and build a film’s narrative identity. 

eg- the reoccurring bunny rabbit though the film while the plot thickens

intertextual referencing: when a piece of art is mentioned, examples being a book, a poem, another film etc..

eg- the mentions of all the literature within this film

visual/ sound motifs: sound or visual elements in film that reoccur to help tell the characters story.

eg-“number one rule about fight club” repetition

colour grading: putting a filter or a certain filter over a film to suit the mood or set a tone.

eg- summery and vibrant to match the contents of the film.

auteur trademarks- a directors following theme of vibe throughout there films

eg- Jordan Peele, reoccurring theme of black representation in horror films, realistic representation of fear.

Aesthetic tone

pathos: an appeal to the audiences emotions. sad moments

Ethos- is a persuasive technique that appeals to an audience by highlighting credibility

bathos- anti-climax, unintentional lapse in mood.

suspense- a film that puts you on edge and unknowing of what’s to come.

dramatic irony- when the audience knows something that the character does not.

distancing effect- something to remind the viewers that it is just a story and to not get too emotionally invested in it.

post-modern humour: when a film has embraced multiple genres and embracing absurdity and breaking conventions.

definition: a set of principles that are associated with an artistic taste. (i.e. colour grading, costuming, set locations and sound)

realism–

Verisimilitude: Something that is sticking to reality, being true to life or realistic. Example: Yes God, Yes.

Social Realism: Something that aims to draw attention to a real societal or political issue. often sets out to critique these issues. Example: The Millionaire Tour

Magic Realism: A realistic narrative is combined with surreal aspects of fantasy. Example: The Shape of Water

Hyperreality: the inability to distinguish simulations of reality from reality. Example: The Matrix

Visual style–

Iconography: the use of a recurring visual images/symbols in a movie that convey themes, help the narrative or evoke an emotional reaction in the audience. Example: in ‘On a Clear Day’, the sea/pools/bodies of water are shown repeatedly throughout the film to represent the guilt Frank feels for his son’s death, and how he’s dealing with his midlife crisis.

Intertextual reference: When a movie will reference another text (movie, play, tv show, book). Example: Sawyer in lost using many references as nicknames, i.e. calling Charlie ‘Oliver Twist’. He is also often seen reading books which he will then reference.

Visual/Sound motif: A recurring story element that helps to forward the films thematic meaning. (it can be represented visually by shapes, colours, objects and settings. or audibly as distinct sounds, music or noises). Example: In Lord of the Rings, whenever the hobbits get reflective on The Shire, its theme will play in the background, the instruments in it often changing to reflect the way it is being reflected on by the characters.

Colour Grading: tools that are used to make films look better or artificially change the colour to suggest tone or mood. Example: In Pet (2016), whenever Seth is in the basement with Holly, the lighting is made cooler and darker to reflect both Seth’s and Holly’s mindset while down there.

Auteur Trademarks: A filmmakers distinct artistic approach to their film making. Example: Wes Anderson’s movies are always very bright and eccentric. for example, his movie Isle of Dogs, specifically when they’re on land with the humans rather than with the dogs.

Tone–

Pathos: objects that are incorporated into a film to create an emotional appeal in the audience, often one of pity. this can be used to connect with the audience. Example: the Episode ‘Fire + Water’ from Lost, where the audience is shown the character Charlie from a different light as he is trying to save Claire’s baby from things he is hallucinating, which appear to the audience as surreal flashbacks.

Bathos: An anti-Climactic moment. (where a serious moment is being built up to a nothing climax, it can sometimes be done by accident or done for comedic effect). Example: When Mike in Five Nights at Freddy’s is around the office, the audience is made to think that one of the Animatronics will be waiting for him but it is actually a small toy that scares him.

Suspense: When a movie creates a sense of anxiety, anticipation and unease in the audience. it is most often used in thrillers. Example, when Holly is being stalked by Seth as he finds her at her work in Pet(2016).

Comedy: when something is done to make the audience laugh. Example: the Honda odyssey scene from Deadpool and Wolverine.

Dramatic Irony: when the audience has knowledge of something that the characters in the movie/tv show do not. Example: the Pet (2016) scene where Holly talks to Seth, coaching him on how to get rid of Nate, who has no idea that Seth is behind him.

Distancing Effect (verfremdung): breaking the fourth wall. reminding the audience they’re watching a movie. Example: Ferris Bueller’s day off

Postmodern Humour: humour that goes against common ideas in relation to society, genre and humanity Example: Seed of Chucky, specifically the character Glen/Glenda.

Aesthetics is the style and tone of a film.

Realism

Realism is an attempt to make the audience believe in the world the film creates

Verisimilitude – When a film conveys a sense of truthfulness and realism, sometimes requiring suspension of disbelief

Intruder (1989, Scott Spiegel)

The Hitcher (1986, Robert Harmon)

Social Realism – The movie displays a social environment and its impacts on the characters in it.

Perfect Blue (1997, Satoshi Kon) – Kon uses the film to critique the Japanese idol system and how celebrities are treated.

Magic Realism – Surreal and fantastical elements have been incorporated into an otherwise realistic setting

Carrie (1976, Brian De Palma)

Hyperreality – A film in which the reality portrayed is exaggerated, or is “too real to be real”

The Matrix Reloaded (2003,The Wachowzkis)

Visual Style

Iconography – Use of reoccurring visual symbols that convey emotion and provide symbolism

Lady Vengeance (2005, Park Chan-Wook) – the colour white is used in the movie to show purity, revenge and devotion.

Intertextual Referencing – When a film incorporates aspects of another work (another film, book, series, poetry etc)

The Crow (1994, Alex Proyas) – The graphic novel the film was based on was heavily inspired by the band Joy Division and quoted song titles in the artwork frequently, and the film itself quotes classic literature like ‘Paradise Lost’ and Edgar Allen Poe’s ‘The Raven‘

Visual/Sound motifs – Recurring element in a film to help the story like announcing a character, punctuating a plot point or highlighting a theme

Suspiria (1977, Dario Argento) – Suspiria uses a lot of unnatural red and blue lighting, creating a dreamlike feel and being used to announce the appearance of supernatural forces or death

Colour Grading – changing the colour of footage in post production to create a constant colour scheme or to represent a theme

Manhunter (1986, Michael Mann)

Auteur trademark – a visual technique used prominently by a particular director that an audience can use to recognise as their work

Phantom Of The Paradise (1974, Brian De Palma) – De Palma uses split screen often in his works

Tone

A films tone is how it portrays its subject matter and how the audience should feel while watching the film

Pathos – Something in a film that invokes pity and compassion in the spectator

Stand By Me (1986, Rob Reiner) – Gordie dreams that his father tells him he should have died instead of his brother

Bathos – an effect of anticlimax

Se7en (1995, David Fincher) – The main antagonist of the film turns himself in

Suspense – When the director creates anticipation and anxiousness in the audience during tense scenes

Black Christmas (1974, Bob Clark)

Comedy – aspects in a film intended to make a spectator laugh and entertain them

Scary Movie (2000, Keenen Ivory Weyans)

Dramatic Irony – When the audience knows something a character doesn’t

Woman Of The Hour (2023, Anna Kendrick) – The audience knows Rodney is a killer. Cheryl doesn’t.

Distancing Effect (V-Effekt) – When the audience is reminded that they are watching a film and are “alienated” from the world of the film

The Muppet Movie (1979, James Frawley) – Dr. Teeth reads the films script

Postmodern Humour – when a film subverts mainstream audience expectations

Return Of The Living Dead (1985, Dan O’Bannon) – The film subverts the standard horror movie format at the time by making the main cast a group of punks and low wage workers and giving them personalities and depth

Realism

Versimilitude: the believability or semblance of truth in a work, even if that work doesn’t reflect real-life accurately. Example: ‘The Wolfpack’ (2014). Uses the real-life people who experienced the events shown in the film, adding to the versimilitude in the film.

Social Realism: when a film tries to draw attention to the real socio-political conditions of the working class as a means to critique the power structures behind these conditions. Example: ‘The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner’ (1962). The main protagonist uses running as a way to mentally reflect upon his political thoughts and realises the class divisions within in England.

Magic Realism: when a film portrays fantastical events in an otherwise realistic tone. Example: ‘Pan’s Labyrinth’ (2016). Tells a realistic story simultaneously with a fairytale.

Hyper-reality: a film in which what is real and what is fiction are seamlessly blended together so that there is no clear distinction between where one ends and the other begins. Example: ‘The Matrix’ (1999). The virtual reality medium is used to illustrate the concept of hyper-reality, which is what the majority of the film is based upon.

Visual Style

Iconography: the use of recurring visual images and symbols in movies that convey specific themes, evoke emotions, and build a film’s narrative identity. Example: ‘Schindler’s List’ (1993). The recurring symbol of the girl in the red coat, which represents the persecution of innocence and the needlessness of war.

Intertextual Referencing: when films over lap with another piece of literature or an idea. Example: ‘Shrek’ (2001). Throughout the ‘Shrek’ franchise many fairy tales and other pieces of literature are referenced, such as the characters of Pinocchio or The Three Little Pigs.

Visual/Sound Motifs: A recurring visual or aural element that is link to a thematic meaning. Example: ‘Psycho’ (1960). Throughout the film, the character of Norman Bates is frequently seen with images of birds or actual taxidermized birds. This foreshadows to the viewer the twist ending that his mother is dead and that Norman has been preserving her since her death.

Colour Grading: Manipulating contrast, colour, saturation and other aspects to match scenes that are shot under different conditions or that have similar thematic content. Example: ‘Mad Max: Fury Road’ (2015). The film of ‘Mad Max: Fury Road’ has an amazing orange hue throughout and was done by director George Miller’s wife Margaret Sixel. It was a risk as she had never edited a film before but Miller wanted a woman’s take on editing. She ended up winning an academy award for Best Film Editing in 2015.

Auteur Trademarks: a reference (a character, an angle, a theme) that is recurrent in the author’s work. Example: ‘The Shining’. Stanley Kubrick’s auteur style is marked by grandeur and meticulous craftsmanship. His style consists of striking symmetry, innovative lighting techniques and detailed set designs whose visual depth mirrors the thematic depth of most of his films.

Tone

Pathos: To appeal to the audience’s emotion. Example: ‘The Lion King’ (1994). The scene in which Mufasa dies by the hands of his own brother, Scar, is sure to evoke some emotion from the audience as someone in the audience has surely lost a parental figure.

Bathos: When a film’s tone starts out serious and then turns trivial. Example: ‘War of the Worlds’ (1953). The ending of the film ‘War of the Worlds’ is definitely anticlimactic and bathetic, as the Martians die to microbes in the atmosphere that their immune systems were unprepared for. This delivers an unexpecting ending for the audience.

Suspense: The audience’s excited anticipation about the the plot or the conflict, which may be heightened by a violent moment or a stressful scene. Example: The Conjuring (2013). The scenes in which the family first arrive at the house are rather suspenseful, due to the set design of the film, which utilises narrow staircases, low ceilings and an unsettling atomsphere.

Comedy: ‘Make ’em laugh’ films designed to elicit laughter and excrete humour from the audience. Example: ‘The Three Amigos’ (1986). A personal favourite comedy film of mine, featuring Steve Martin, Chevy Chase and Martin Short, in which Three actors travel to a Mexican village to perform as their movie characters, the Three Amigos. However, the community thinks they are actual gunfighters and asks them to stop a group of bandits.

Dramatic Irony: A plot device to highlight the difference between a character’s understanding of a given situation and that of an audience. Example: ‘Jaws’ (1975). Throughout the film, there are moments where the audience knows the shark is there, when the characters do not.

Distancing Effect (Verfremdung): When a character reminds the audience that they are watching a play, rather than making it more realistic. Example: ‘Palindromes’ (2004) in Palindromes, Solondz uses the alienation effect to create a space for discussion over what abuse can look like from a child’s perspective

Postmodern Humour: When a comedy presents a thoroughly undeceived view of human life. Example: ‘Wayne’s World’ (1992). Uses post modernist humour to discuss the fragility of the media.