Deep focus is a photographic and cinematographic technique using a large depth of field, invented by the cinematographer Gregg Toland. Poland introduced the new method own the critically acclaimed Citizen Kane, and has remained a prominent voice of technique. Depth of field is the front-to-back range of focus in an image — that is, how much of it appears sharp and clear. In deep focus the foreground, middle-ground and background are all in focus.
The Kuleshov effect is a film editing (montage) effect demonstrated by Soviet film-maker Lev Kuleshov in the 1910s and 1920s. It is a mental phenomenon by which viewers derive more meaning from the interaction of two sequential shots than from a single shot in isolation.
The sound editor is the one who is in charge of the sound elements in the film such as dialogue, sound affects, automated dialogue, background sounds and chooses audio for the soundtrack while the sound mixer is the person who decides what the audience hears at release such as the volume of the soundtrack throughout the film.
There are five important soviet montage techniques, these include:
Metric editing
rhythmic montage
tonal editing methods
over tonal methods
the intellectual method
In this essay however i will only need to cover three of them:
The “Intellectual Method” (Eisenstein’s favourite,) rhythmic editing, and tonal editing.
First I will discuss the use of rhythmic editing. Rhythmic editing is when cuts are made based on time, sometimes it is also coupled with music and this shows a deeper meaning than metric editing does. It helps to keep the fluidity of the film as the cuts are in places you would expect. One example in Strike (Sergei Eisenstein, 1925) is when the building is burning down at the end: cuts are being made however it is not being cut mid action like in metric editing – where it doesn’t matter what is happening it must still cut. Here, cuts are made thoughtfully and create a sense of fluidity.
Next it is important to look at tonal editing. Tonal editing is when the emotional meaning of shots is considered – the tone of the film. For example a sleeping baby would emote calmness and relaxation. In Strike, tonal editing is used towards the end when a speech is being given at the time of the burning building. The civilians are being persuaded and pushed into rioting by fellow residents of the town. Here multiple close-ups of the person giving the speech is used, the tone of each shot here shows the determination and confidence that is emanating from him. The tonal editing of cutting between him and the crowd entices the audience and brings them into the moment. It makes the audience feel as if they are there and being cheered on. It further creates a sense of determination and power that the civilians have over the police / government / people in charge.
Finally i will explain the intellectual method of montage. This is the combination of shots to create a meaning. By themselves they may not be very meaningful or easily understandable however when combined, a greater meaning is produced. For example in Strike when the shot of the striking workers is shown it creates a sense of violence, however it is not bringing anything new in. No new ideas have been brought up. However when combined with the shot of the cow being killed it creates a metaphor to show that the workers are being treated like cattle. This relates back to the core meaning of the meaning – showing how poorly the workers are being treated.
At this time, many movies were closely managed and in some cases used as propaganda for the government. Strike is a prime example of this. It is almost saying to the people “if you think it’s bad now remember what it used to be like, or what it could look like” It shows the audience what is happening from the worker’s perspective. For example more of the film is based on the workers and their point of view rather than the upper class. This film was meant to connect to the audience. Since much less of the film is focused on the authorities it almost dehumanizes them, which once again helps the audience to connect with the workers. This was a way that the government could idolize the Russian revolution and gain the support of the lower class.
Eisenstein’s work is incredibly influential on modern day cinema. His montage techniques that i have discussed in this essay can be seen in countless modern mainstream films. One example is in “Rocky IV” (Sylvester Stallone, 1985) in the famous training montage. Continually using Intellectual montage, cutting between Rocky and Drago – showing the good and the bad, these quick cut shots create tension just like they do in Eisenstein’s work. Additionally, just as Eisenstein’s work was idolizing the communist system, in Rocky, capitalism is being idolized int he form of Rocky Balboa. It is as if Eisenstein’s techniques are being used against him / for the opposite purpose. Additionally Eisenstein’s use of montage influenced one of, if not the, greatest films of all time “Raging Bull” (1980, Martin Scorsese) “Raging bull” is shot in black and white as an homage to European silent films. Not only that but during a very important fight, Scorsese cuts from Black and white stills from the fight to full colour home videos, which, just like in Eisenstein’s work, provide great contrast and show the two sides of him. Showing how he works like an animal during the fight, but also how loving he is with his family.
Finally Eisenstein’s work in montage has influenced modern day music videos immensely, the technique of cutting the beat came from Eisenstein’s work, if it wasn’t for him, music videos would probably look incredibly different.
During the scene in which Ray Liotta playing Henry Hill and his soon to be wife Karen enter the Copacobana Nightclub through the back, the Steadicam follows the couple all the way through to the front of the dining area. The long take is fluid and seems so effortless, in which exemplifies how cinematography involving the perspective of the action can mirror how the audience perceives the character in focus, as the effortless capture of the highly active scene symbolizes the accessibility Hill had due to his connections,. Henry Hill is demonstrating to Karen how effortless this complex turn of events can be as he is a powerful figure in the underground crime scene, breezing through layers of the building. The various greetings from extras also adds a layer of notoriety that strengthens the intended demonstration of the protagonist.
The Steadicam strengthens the captivation of the events occurring on camera, with the fast, winding route Henry Hill and Karen journey through being captured in perspective of following them, adding verisimilitude to the scene and emphasizing the reality of the protagonists life.
Task 2: favorite scene
My favorite scene in Citizen Kane is the one where Kane is being sent away by his mother and father. He is playing in the snow whilst Mr Thatcher is discussing the terms of taking little Charles away.
Charles doesn’t seem keen to leave and we can see this when he pushes Mr Thatcher over. Although he doesn’t want to leave we can see it is for his benefit because after he pushes Mr Thatcher over his father says “he needs a good beating” this shows the audience that Charles is actually being saved even though he doesn’t see it that way. This is why i like this scene because it shows that he came from a rough upbringing and he deserves to go and live somewhere nice with Mr Thatcher.
In this scene there is a shot of Charles playing in the snow and his mother watching from the window, the camera then moves backwards into the room as Mrs Kane walks away from the window towards the dining table to sign her son off to Mr Thatcher. This shot is very significant because it shows Mrs Banks’ love for her son even though she is sending him away, She knows its for his own good. When recording this shot the camera was on a track and the table in the scene splits in half to allow the camera to move through it, although we don’t see this or probably notice, it was a genius because it allowed for a wider view of the room without cutting to another shot.
Throughout “The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari” (Robert Wiene, 1920) Many different and aspects of this film are regarded as innovative – whether its cinematography, editing or mise-en-scene.
Firstly, it is important to understand that The Cabinet Of Dr Caligari was not produced by a mainstream company, therefore it had limited resources. And because of this, not a lot of money could be spent on artificial lighting so paint was used to indicate lighting and shadows. This is one of the most innovative techniques in my opinion and was a great contribution to the overall verisimilitude of the film. Although the film did not have colour, verisimilitude could still be created effectively due to these innovative techniques.
Additionally the film’s set was extremely innovative. Slanted walls and windows and abstract designs all lead the to the idea of craziness and mental instability / deterioration. It puts us inside the mind of the narrator and pulls us along the journey that follows the deterioration of his mental health. It immerses the audience in another world without the use of CGI or other computer techniques.
Another innovative technique used is the iris wipe. This is done by closing the camera lens whilst still recording so it looks like it is zeroing in on the middle of the screen. This is a very artistic and expressive transition and so is not utilized often in modern film – sometimes it is used to draw attention to specific parts of the scene but during this film it is mostly used to create an interruption in the fluidity of the movie. It refers to the brokenness of the narrator’s and characters’ mind. Additionally the use of a slow transition such as an iris transition causes the audience to feel anticipation for what is to come next.
Finally Cesare’s make-up is considered to be innovative as it reflects the tone of the movie and of the scene. It is very bold and reveals his inner turmoil and conflicting emotions. He also has a very dark costume which further references to his personality and thoughts. Additionally it establishes him as the main villain to us.
Not only that but one must consider the effect that the culture had on German expressionism as a whole. The Weimar Republic was a democratic system that was introduced post world war 1. It was during the time of the Weimar Republic that German expressionism became very popular. This is because Germany had banned imports from other countries and this included films, therefore it was up to German artists and film-makers to create their own works of art. The Weimar Republic was affecting film in a very strong way. Most notably shown in “The Cabinet Of Dr Caligari” through the Mise-En-Scene and set design. Around this time, Germany was in a state of depression and darkness, Wiene was able to directly represent this in the film through the set design, the grass was made to look like knife blades coming out the ground, doors and windows aren’t square. Streets aren’t symmetrical and seem to wind in endlessly unpredictable ways. Everything about it seemed dark and disorderly – a direct representation of Germany at the time.
Finally, thought must be put into examining what this film influenced. “The Cabinet Of Dr Caligari” was incredibly influential and is seen as one of, if not THE, first horror movies. This style of film-making paved the way for the American genre of Noir. The use of shadows and lighting can be clearly linked back to those dark depressing German expressionist films. Additionally German Expressionism has inspired the work of Directors like Tim Burton and Ridley Scott. Shown specifically through films like “Edward Scissorhands” (Tim Burton, 1990) and “Alice In Wonderland”(Tim Burton, 2010) Aswell as “Bladerunner” (Ridley Scott, 1982).
Why Citizen Kane is considered “The Greatest Film Ever Made”
Citizen Kane is often critically acclaimed as the greatest movie ever made, evident in multiple occasions, topping the list of greatest films from many considerably established institutions such as the AFI. Citizen Kane was responsible for embedding revolutionary cinematic techniques that would transcend film for years to come, setting a precedent that would not only result in the film being regarded the best noir film, with it’s existential exposure of chiaroscuro, but regarded one of the best movies ever made.
Citizen Kane can also be seen as one of the first movies to converge genres. The introductory scene is arguably gothic, with the visual of Xanadu being aesthetically ghastly which would indicate the movie to follow the monster genre that had been popular during that time. However, as the movie continues past the death of Kane into his biography, we begin to see the mystery side of the film, with the ambiguity of Rosebud and the transcendence of time fragmenting the traditional flow of a narrative, which arguably correlates with the representation of how a life is quantified. Perhaps the multitude of genres is a direct contrast into the complexity of categorizing one’s lifetime.
One of the cinematic techniques that were used in the film was what we now know as deep focus lens, which had been invented by the cinematographer of the film, Gregg Toland. A pivotal scene using this technique is the scene in which a young Kane is playing outside in the snow in the background of the shot, which we visualise through the window in the middle ground, whilst the foreground shows the transition of custody of Kane. The focus is further strengthened with layering of the mise-en-scene, which enhanced the perspective for the viewer. The sheets of paper, the chair beside the window and the beams on the ceiling all play a role in the shot, especially the table that was onset made to split in half so the camera could pan out from outside using a long take. Toland used deep focus and long take in this shot to retain verisimilitude, and his methods in doing so were nothing short of transcending.
Chiaroscuro, the balance of light to dark in film, is prominent throughout Citizen Kane. For instance, in the scene after the news reel of Kane’s life, the manipulation of shadow places the reporters in the room in the dark, with the presence of Kane being illuminated. Therefore, the audience can easily identify that Kane is the prominent focus of the shot, retaining relevance in the scene, whilst the reporters in the room are represented with silhouettes, denouncing their presence and conveying to the audience that their dialect is important not their identity.
Citizen Kane contains themes so significant that each time it is viewed, the depiction of what certain instances represent can be more relevant to a subjective belief, which in itself stands as one of the film’s most substantial messages. Welles wants to convey that life is however you perceive it, and uses the character of Kane to infatuate this, with his excessive materialistic lifestyle sadly being his detriment, and the iconic “Rosebud” suggesting that regardless of the supposed successes of his life, his content lay in the simplicity of his youth, and the quarrel of who he would have been for not the drastic departure of his early life.