Meaning of Landscape

Landscape refers to the visible features of an area of land, often depicted in art or photography to showcase its natural beauty. In artistic terms, it describes works that focus primarily on natural scenery such as mountains, rivers, forests, and fields.

Emergence of Landscape as a Genre in Western Culture

Landscape painting began to emerge as an independent genre in Western art during the Renaissance (15th–16th centuries). However, it remained secondary to historical, religious, and portrait painting. It gained prominence as artists began incorporating more detailed backgrounds into their works.

Classical Landscape Genre

Classical landscape painting became a distinct genre in the 17th century, particularly in the works of artists like Claude Lorrain and Nicolas Poussin. These artists created idealized, harmonious landscapes influenced by classical antiquity, often incorporating mythological or historical themes.

Rise of Landscape Art in the Late 18th / 19th Century

The rise of landscape art during this period was influenced by several factors:

• Romanticism: Artists sought to express emotions and the sublime power of nature, as seen in the works of Caspar David Friedrich and J.M.W. Turner.
• Industrial Revolution: As cities grew and industrialization changed rural life, people became more nostalgic for untouched nature.
• Scientific Exploration: Increased interest in geology and natural sciences led to a fascination with documenting landscapes.
• National Identity: Many countries, including the U.S. and Britain, used landscape art to celebrate national pride and beauty, as seen in the Hudson River School and John Constable’s works.

Origin of Landscape Photography

Landscape photography originated in the mid-19th century, with early pioneers like Carleton Watkins, William Henry Jackson, and Eadweard Muybridge capturing dramatic scenes of the American West. The development of better cameras and exposure techniques allowed photographers to document landscapes in ways previously reserved for painters.

john constable notes

The Hay Wain

6ft long weird length very big usually smaller. Where he grew up woman washing farmers working dog barking. fathers a land owner. industrial revolution taking jobs away photos relaxed and rural. classical landscape used to be called noon see no faces farmers in the back become nature his own personal experience the sound of water escaping from slimy posts and brickwork. these scenes made me a painter. lack of finish everything had to be smoothly painted he deliberately created a rough surface to feel the nature of the painting. carefully composed memory.

What does Landscape mean? ​

A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or human-made features, often considered in terms of their aesthetic appeal.

When did classical landscapes emerge as a genre?​

the Birth of the Classical Landscape was In the 17th century. These landscapes were influenced by classical antiquity and sought to illustrate an ideal landscape recalling Arcadia, a legendary place in ancient Greece known for its quiet pastoral beauty.

When did landscape emerge as a genre in western culture? ​

After the fall of the Roman Empire, the tradition of depicting pure landscapes declined, and the landscape was seen only as a setting for religious and figural scenes. This tradition continued until the 16th century when artists began to view the landscape as a subject in its own right.

When did landscape photography originate?

According to records, the earliest known evidence of a landscape photograph was taken between the years of 1826 and 1827. It was an urban landscape photo taken by a French inventor by the name of Nicephore Niepce.

What prompted the rise of Landscape Art during the late 18th / 19th century?​

Subsequently, religious painting declined throughout the rest of Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries. That fact, combined with a new Romanticism which emphasized emotion, individualism, and the glorification of nature promoted landscapes to a prestigious place in art that continues to this day.

What does Landscape mean?

Landscape photography shows the spaces within the world, sometimes vast and unending, but other times microscopic. Landscape photographs typically capture the presence of nature but can also focus on human-made features or disturbances of landscapes. Landscape photography is done for a variety of reasons, the most common being to recall a personal observation or experience while in the outdoors. Others pursue it as an environmental lifestyle, to be involved with nature and the elements or as an escape from the artificial world. Many landscape photographs show little or no human activity and are created in the pursuit of a pure depiction of nature; devoid of human influence and instead featuring subjects such as strongly defined landforms, weather, and ambient light. As with most forms of art, the definition of a landscape photograph is broad and may include rural or urban settings, industrial areas or nature photography

When did landscape emerge as a genre in western culture?

Artists have been painting the landscape since ancient times. The Greeks and Romans created wall paintings of landscapes and gardenscapes. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the tradition of depicting pure landscapes declined and the landscape was seen only as a setting for religious and figural scenes. This tradition continued until the 16th century when artists began to view the landscape as a subject in its own right. The artistic shift seems to have corresponded to a growing interest in the natural world sparked by the Renaissance.

When did classical landscapes emerge as a genre?​

In the 17th century the classical landscape was born. These landscapes were influenced by classical antiquity and illustrated an ideal landscape recalling Arcadia; a legendary place in ancient Greece known for its quiet pastoral beauty. The Roman poet Virgil had described Arcadia as the home of pastoral simplicity. In a classical landscape the positioning of objects was carefully created; every tree, rock, or animal was placed to present a harmonious, balanced and timeless mood. The classical landscape was perfected by French artists Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain. Both artists spent most of their careers in Rome drawing inspiration from the Roman countryside.

What prompted the rise of Landscape Art during the late 18th / 19th century?​

Nicolas Poussin, who in his early years focused his talent on history painting, came later in life to believe that landscapes could express the same powerful emotions as the human dramas depicted in history paintings. From that point on, he worked to elevate landscape to a higher status. Several factors during the nineteenth century helped to broaden the appeal of landscape art. Most noticeable among them was urban growth, which increasingly separated Americans from rural scenes and activities; fostering a nostalgic desire to reconnect with nature.

When did landscape photography originate?

According to records, the earliest known evidence of a landscape photograph was taken between the years of 1826 and 1827. It was an urban landscape photo taken by a French inventor by the name of Nicephore Niepce. It was noted this first exposure took him a 8 hours, so it made sense for him to choose a still subject. A few years later, around 1835, an English scientist named Henry Fox Talbot entered the scene and introduced innovations in photography. This allowed people a much faster way of rendering reality into a two-dimensional format that they were previously only able to do by way of painting. This process took much longer than taking a photo.

Definition and Explanation

Romanticism was first recognized as a style in literary criticism around 1800, but it really took off as an artistic movement in France and Britain during the early 1800s and continued to thrive until about the middle of the century. This movement focused on imagination and feelings, arising as a reaction to the disappointment with Enlightenment ideals of reason and structure that followed the French Revolution in 1789.​

The term sublime refers to art/photography that has the capability to terrify or overwhelm the viewer. Edmund Burke asserts that the feelings of the sublime are triggered by extremes – vastness, extreme height, difficulty, darkness or excessive light.​ Sublime paintings/photography typically focus on extreme environments such as jagged mountains or rough, stormy seas which invocate feelings of fear as well as excitement.

“Whatever is fitted in any sort to excite the ideas of pain, and danger, that is to say, whatever is in any sort terrible, or is conversant about terrible objects, or operates in a manner analogous to terror, is a source of the sublime; that is, it is productive of the strongest emotion which the mind is capable of feeling.”

The Industrial Revolution and its Impact on Romanticism

The Industrial Revolution had a profound impact on the Romantic movement, shaping its themes, concerns, and artistic expressions. The loss of connection with nature, the alienating effects of urbanization, and the critique of industrial capitalism all influenced the works of Romantic poets and artists.

Many English intellectuals and artists in the early 19th century considered industrialism inhumane and unnatural and revolted – sometimes quite violently – against what they felt to be the increasingly inhumane and unnatural mechanization of modern life. To a large extent, English Romantic intellectuals and artists felt that the modern industrial world was harsh and deadening to the senses and spirit. These intellectuals called for a return, both in life and in spirit, of the emotional and natural, as well as the ideals of the pre-industrial past.

Romantic Artists

JMW Turner

Joseph Mallord William Turner (23 April 1775 – 19 December 1851), known in his time as William Turner, was an English Romantic painter, printmaker and watercolourist. He is known for his expressive colouring, imaginative landscapes and turbulent, often violent marine paintings. He left behind more than 550 oil paintings, 2,000 watercolours, and 30,000 works on paper. He was championed by the leading English art critic John Ruskin from 1840, and is today regarded as having elevated landscape painting to an eminence rivalling history painting.​

John Constable

John Constable (11 June 1776 – 31 March 1837) was an English landscape painter in the Romantic tradition. Born in Suffolk, he is known principally for revolutionising the genre of landscape painting with his pictures of Dedham Vale, the area surrounding his home – now known as “Constable Country” – which he invested with an intensity of affection. “I should paint my own places best”, he wrote to his friend John Fisher in 1821, “painting is but another word for feeling”.​

Constable’s most famous paintings include Wivenhoe Park (1816), Dedham Vale (1828) and The Hay Wain (1821). Although his paintings are now among the most popular and valuable in British art, he was never financially successful. He was elected to the Royal Academy of Arts at the age of 52. His work was embraced in France, where he sold more than in his native England and inspired the Barbizon school.​

Constable’s father was a land owner and the early industrial revolution was perceived to threaten jobs, creating a contextual link which is relaxed and not portraying the tension associated with the industrial revolution at the time. The typical landscape before this focused on classical landscapes, e.g. Arcadia or fictional landscapes which this painting is defying – most notably with the large amount of canvas dedicated to the sky (since Constable had studied meteorology, shown by him capturing a specific time of day in the painting) and fields, also making the painting more personal as it relates to the landscapes Constable grew up in and is fond of. The painting is also intentionally not ‘finished’ with rough textures and brushstrokes creating more emphasis on the grass and light reflecting off the water.

Landscape photography shows the spaces within the world, sometimes vast and unending, but other times microscopic. Landscape photographs typically capture the presence of nature but can also focus on human-made features or disturbances of landscapes. Landscape photography is done for a variety of reasons. Perhaps the most common is to recall a personal observation or experience while in the outdoors, especially when traveling. Others pursue it particularly as an outdoor lifestyle, to be involved with nature and the elements, some as an escape from the artificial world.

Rise of Landscapes in Western Culture

After the fall of the Roman Empire, the tradition of depicting pure landscapes declined, and the landscape was seen only as a setting for religious and figural scenes. This tradition continued until the 16th century when artists began to view the landscape as a subject in its own right. The artistic shift seems to have corresponded to a growing interest in the natural world sparked by the Renaissance.

Classical Landscapes

In the 17th century the classical landscape was born. These landscapes were influenced by classical antiquity and sought to illustrate an ideal landscape recalling Arcadia, a legendary place in ancient Greece known for its quiet pastoral beauty. The Roman poet Virgil had described Arcadia as the home of pastoral simplicity.

In a classical landscape the positioning of objects was contrived; every tree, rock, or animal was carefully placed to present a harmonious, balanced, and timeless mood. The classical landscape was perfected by French artists Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain. Both artists spent most of their careers in Rome drawing inspiration from the Roman countryside.

Italy, at this time, was the preferred location for many artists, who often travelled there with patrons on the Grand Tour. Poussin, who in his early years focused his talent on history painting, came later in life to believe that landscapes could express the same powerful emotions as the human dramas depicted in history paintings. From that point on, he worked to elevate landscape to a higher status.

Rise of Landscape Art During the 18th/19th Century

Several factors converged during the nineteenth century to broaden the appeal of landscape art. Most noticeable among them was urban growth, which increasingly separated Americans from rural scenes and activities, fostering a nostalgic desire to reconnect with nature.

Also, religious painting declined throughout the rest of Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries. That fact, combined with a new Romanticism — which emphasized emotion, individualism, and the glorification of nature — promoted landscapes to the well-loved place in art which they continue to hold today.

Origin of Landscape Photography

It’s a bit harder to pinpoint when landscape photography began. According to records, the earliest known evidence of a landscape photograph was taken between the years of 1826 and 1827. It was an urban landscape photo taken by a French inventor by the name of Nicephore Niepce. It was noted this first exposure took him a mere 8 hours, so perhaps it made sense for him to choose a still subject. A few years later, around 1835, an English scientist named Henry Fox Talbot entered the scene and introduced innovations in photography.

It was quite revolutionary back then because this allowed people a much faster way of rendering reality into a two-dimensional format that they were previously only able to do by way of painting. This process took much longer than taking a photo.

Identity

For my final images in this identity project, I selected this series because they effectively capture female stereotypes in a playful and exaggerated way, drawing inspiration from Cindy Sherman. Her work explores identity, performance, and the construction of femininity, which I aimed to reflect through these staged portraits.

I chose these specific images because they showcase a range of over-the-top expressions and poses that highlight different stereotypical portrayals of women, particularly in relation to beauty, vanity, and performative femininity. The use of bold makeup, oversized hair rollers, and a glamorous satin robe enhances the theatrical feel, making the subject appear almost like a caricature of traditional beauty standards.

Each image plays with the idea of femininity as a performance, with exaggerated expressions that range from playful confidence to sultry allure. The lipstick application and open-mouthed pose, for example, reference the expectation that beauty is both a ritual and an obligation for women. By emphasizing these details in a humorous and exaggerated manner, I wanted to challenge how these stereotypes are both reinforced and internalized.

I aimed to create thought-provoking yet visually engaging images that reflect the societal pressures placed on women. The staged, performative nature of the series ties back to Sherman’s conceptual approach, making these selections the strongest representation of my exploration of identity and gender roles.

I chose to include this second set of images because it explores a different side of female stereotypes, contrasting with the playful and glamorous feel of my first set. These have a moodier vibe to them, playing into the idea of the ‘mysterious’ or ‘rebellious’ woman often seen in films and media.

The cigarette, dramatic lighting, and detached expression plays into the stereotype of the ‘troubled woman’ a figure that is often romanticized in popular culture. The shadows and natural light add to the atmosphere, making the images feel more cinematic and reflective.

I wanted to include this set to show a contrast between two extremes of femininity -the over-the-top, glamorous persona in my first set and this more detached, ‘deep in thought’ stereotype. Both tie back to Cindy Sherman’s work and her exploration of constructed female identities.

Comparison to Cindy Sherman

When I compare my photos to Cindy Sherman’s work, I feel like we’re both exploring similar ideas around gender, identity, and the roles society expects women to play. Sherman critiques these stereotypes by creating exaggerated characters and using herself as the subject. With my photos, I focused on those same expectations, specifically through the rituals of doing hair and makeup.

The tone of my work, though, feels a bit different. Sherman’s photos often have this unsettling vibe, while mine are more playful and light-hearted. I wanted to keep things fun and relatable, but still make people think about how these routines connect to societal pressures.

Visually, Sherman’s work is very theatrical and carefully staged, with dramatic lighting and props that make her characters feel larger than life. In my photos, I used exaggeration in the poses and actions, but I kept the scenes grounded in the everyday. I think this gave my work a lighter tone, while still paying homage to her ability to critique through performance.

In the end, I think my photos reflect the spirit of Sherman’s work, challenging ideas about femininity, but with my own twist that feels more playful and true to my perspective.

Creative Portraits

Studio Portraits

Environmental Portraits

romanticism definition – a movement in the arts and literature that originated in the late 18th century, emphasizing inspiration, subjectivity, emotion and the primacy of the individual.

who – Both the English poet and artist William Blake and the Spanish painter Francisco Goya have been dubbed “fathers” of Romanticism by various scholars for their works’ emphasis on subjective vision, the power of the imagination, and an often darkly critical political awareness.

what – a literary and artistic movement marked chiefly by an emphasis on the imagination and emotions

The origins of Romanticism – Romanticism started in Western Europe, around the middle of the 18th century. At this time, the dominant artistic and cultural movement is Neoclassicism, which finds its inspiration in the aesthetics of ancient civilizations.

how – Scholars say that the Romantic Period began with the publishing of Lyrical Ballads (1798) by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. This was one of the first collections of poems that strayed from the more formal poetic diction of the Neoclassical Period.

why did it start – Romanticism was a reaction against this spread of industrialism, as well as a criticism of the aristocratic social and political norms and a call for more attention to nature.

why did it end – By World War I, Romanticism was overshadowed by new cultural, social, and political movements, many of them hostile to the perceived illusions and preoccupations of the Romantics.

John Constable

John Constable (11 June 1776 – 31 March 1837) was an English Romantic painter. Born in Suffolk, he is known principally for his landscape paintings of Dedham Vale, the area surrounding his home – now known as “Constable Country”- which he invested with an intensity of affection. “I should paint my own places best”, he wrote to his friend John Fisher in 1821, “painting is but another word for feeling”.

Constable was one of the first artists of the Romantic movement to create landscape paintings drawn directly from nature rather than the idealised and dramatic depictions favoured by other artists of the period and in taking this stance he pioneered Naturalism in Britain.

Constable’s later years were saddened by the death of his wife. So, his works became more «expressionist», he wanted to communicate the emotional reality of the situation, and he emphasized the dynamism of the natural world. Thus, his landscapes appear more sinister and turbulent, expressing the feeling of the sublime

his painting was radical at the time, which would be quite traditional now, which is ambitious.

father is a land owner

land was fragrant movement with tension from industrial revolution removed tension

landscapes not popular at the time , classical landscapes

given over an area of the canvas to the sky

subtle current undercurrent

creating beauty in low movement

personal to him

6 foot

deliberate of rough textures, to feel nature

capture nostalgic memory of place

with this 6 foot painting, at the time is would not be considered traditional

the sublime

Theory developed by Edmund Burke in the mid eighteenth century, where he defined sublime art as art that refers to a greatness beyond all possibility of calculation, measurement or imitation.

Capability to terrify or over well the viewer in photography

The sublime has contrasting positive + negative elements. It could be both beautiful and decaying at the same time, or it could illicit both awe and fear, such as powerful sea waves that can destroy boats on the open sea, which this feeling is shown within the painting.

JMW turner

Turner was born near Covent Garden in London and entered the Royal Academy Schools in 1789. His earliest works form part of the 18th-century topographical tradition. He was soon inspired by 17th-century Dutch artists such as Willem van der Velde, and by the Italianate landscapes of Claude and Richard Wilson.

Any discussion of the sublime in the second half of the nineteenth century should start with Turner. Of all Romantic painters influenced by the aesthetic of the sublime, his works have been widely recognised as the most successful in capturing the effect of boundlessness which Burke and Kant saw as a prerequisite for the sublime in verbal and visual representation – the sublime being something that can be evoked but not achieved. Those works by Turner typically seen as sublime employ a formal language that avoids precise definition, instead using paint to hint at the terrifying and awesome but on a relatively modest scale when compared to the bombastic productions of painters such as Francis Danby and James Ward. Through juxtapositions of dark and light, obtrusive facture and subtle blending effects, combined with energetic centrifugal and vortex configurations and exaggerated distortions of scale, Turner’s works have been seen to both elevate and inspire perception in the beholder

Romanticism

Among the characteristic attitudes of Romanticism were the following: a deepened appreciation of the beauties of nature, a general exaltation of emotion over reason and of the senses over intellect, a turning in upon the self and a heightened examination of human personality and its moods and mental potentialities.

Romanticism has long been associated within the landscape. In the medium of photography, the sense of romance of the landscape features it spirit in full bloom.

What was Romanticism a reaction against?

Romanticism was a revolt against the aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and also a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature.

Enlightenment

Romanticism, flourishing in the late 18th to mid-19th centuries, emphasised emotion, nature, and individualism, contrasting sharply with the Enlightenment’s focus on reason, science, and societal progress. The Enlightenment, spanning much of the 18th century, prioritised logic, scepticism, and intellectual discourse.

A fact-file about romanticism​

Who-

In English literature, the key figures of the Romantic movement are considered to be the group of poets including William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley and the much older William Blake, followed later by the isolated figure of John Clare​

What-

Romanticism has long been associated within the landscape. In the medium of photography, the sense of romance of the landscape features it spirit in full bloom. It is very hard to categorise. The very nature of Romanticism is rather uncontrollable and unpredictable.​

How-

With its emphasis on the imagination and emotion, Romanticism emerged as a response to the disillusionment with the Enlightenment values of reason and order in the aftermath of the French Revolution of 1789.​

Where, when-

Romanticism was first defined as an aesthetic in literary criticism around 1800. It then went on to gain momentum as an artistic movement in France and Britain in the early decades of the nineteenth century and flourished until mid-century. ​

Why-

The main idea of Romanticism is the celebration of the individual and the glorification of nature. More specifically, Romantics embrace the uniqueness of the human spirit, which they feel is reflected in and deeply connected to the untamed wildness of nature.​

The Sublime

For Romantics, the sublime is a meeting of the subjective-internal (emotional) and the objective-external (natural world): we allow our emotions to overwhelm our rationality as we experience the wonder of creation.

In the “sublime”, vast horizons, towering mountains, and plunging chasms inspired profound feelings of awe, or even fear, rapture, and closeness to God or the infinite. The idealization of nature’s landscapes promoted a spiritual antidote to the crowded, industrialized urban areas where so many people lived.

According to Burke, the Beautiful is that which is well-formed and aesthetically pleasing, whereas the Sublime is that which has the power to compel and destroy us.

How did the Industrial Revolution have an impact on Romanticism?

The Industrial Revolution had a profound impact on the Romantic movement, shaping its themes, concerns, and artistic expressions. The loss of connection with nature, the alienating effects of urbanization, and the critique of industrial capitalism all influenced the works of Romantic poets and artists.

The rise of Romanticism can be seen as a literature’s backlash against the Industrial Revolution. Escaping from the crashing modernity and rise of technology, factories, and cities, Romantics focused on nature, rural life and subjectivity.

The importance of the British painters JMW Turner and John Constable​

The landscape painters Turner and Constable were influential exponents of romanticism, an artistic movement of the late 1700s to mid-1800s that emphasized an emotional response to nature. ​

Turner, who travelled extensively, often infused his dramatic seascapes and landscapes with literary or historical allusions. Two of Britain’s greatest painters, J.M.W. Turner and John Constable were also the greatest of rivals. ​

Born within a year of each other Turner in 1775, Constable in 1776 – they used landscape art to reflect the changing world around them.​

Key word and terms associated with romanticism

Individualism ​

Focus on the self and personal expression, valuing individual creativity over societal constraints. ​

Imagination ​

Emphasized as a powerful and transcendent faculty, often seen as more important than reason. ​

Nature ​

Nature was seen as a source of inspiration, beauty, and spiritual power, often depicted as sublime and untamed. ​

Sublime ​

A concept that refers to experiences of awe and terror in nature or art, where beauty and danger intersect. ​

Emotion ​

Emphasis on intense emotions such as passion, awe, melancholy, and longing, often in reaction to the rationalism of the Enlightenment. ​

The Supernatural ​

Interest in the mystical, the mysterious, and the irrational, including folklore, myths, and gothic elements. ​

The Heroic ​

Celebration of the individual hero, often portrayed as a misunderstood or tragic figure. ​

Exoticism ​

Fascination with distant, mysterious lands and cultures, often portrayed in art, literature, and music. ​

Nostalgia ​

A longing for the past, especially for simpler or more primitive times, often idealized. ​

Rebellion ​

Rejection of established norms, authority, and traditional conventions, including a challenge to societal, political, and artistic constraints. ​

Art for Art’s Sake​

The idea that art should be valued for its intrinsic beauty and emotional power rather than its moral or didactic message. ​

Gothic ​

A style that blends the mysterious, eerie, and dark elements, often involving haunted landscapes or supernatural occurrences. ​

The Byronic Hero ​

A specific type of hero, derived from Lord Byron’s works, characterized by rebellion, isolation, and a troubled, tormented soul. ​

Sentimentality ​

Overwhelming emotion, often expressed in literature or visual arts, with a focus on tender, emotional moments. ​