IDENTITY POLITICS is a term that describes a political approach wherein people of a particular religion, race, social background, class or other identifying factor form exclusive socio-political alliances, moving away from broad-based, coalitional politics to support and follow political movements that share a particular identifying quality with them. Its aim is to support and centre the concerns, agendas, and projects of particular groups, in accord with specific social and political changes.

Of course now there are many ongoing culture wars, due to diversity of peoples opinions and lack of tolerance and acceptance of different views. many of these revolve around identity politics, including race, religion, social class, gender, social background, sexual orientation or other identifying factors that are based upon these identities. as social or political activity is usually undertaken with the goal of rectifying injustices suffered by group members, this is because of differences or conflicts between their particular identity, misconceptions of their particular identity or the dominant identity or identities of a larger society.

identity politics also aim in the course of such activity to eliminate negative misrepresentations such as stereotypes of particular groups that have served to justify their members exclusion , exploitation, marginalization, oppression. identity politics also encompasses nationalist or separatist movements within particular countries and territories. identity politics is closely related to multiculturalism, which is the general view that cultural minority groups deserve respectful acknowledgment of their distinctive belief systems, values and ways of life.

identity politics developed around the 1980s and 1990s as a reaction to the perceived failure of liberal civil rights legislation, to eliminate identity-based inequities and injustices, such as racial and sexual discrimination. liberal ideals of equality such as equal rights, equality before the law, equality of opportunity were misguided and ultimately counterproductive because their transcendent nature that is their application to all persons, irrespective of identity, made it difficult in practice to justify policies designed to achieve greater social equity through direct assistance to historically oppressed and exploited groups.

A related criticism was that liberalism emphasis on identity-independent equality rendered it capable of recognizing only the most overt and obvious identity-based injustices, not those that were relatively indirect, subtle or systemic. defenders of liberalism and other critics argued in response that the continued pursuit of identity politics had led to a fracturing of oppressed and exploited populations into numerous inward-looking interest groups, whose different priorities obscured their different goals and challenges and prevented the kind of mass mobilization necessary to secure their basic rights.

in my opinion people should fight for equality and their personal freedom, however in some cases to get this result, many people are put in danger or put themselves in danger. many riots and protests have lead to destruction of buildings, public places , physical harm of others and occasionally even death. these movements have such big catastrophes in order to provoke the government to take action, they are more likely to notice and revaluate what needs to be fixed, rather than peaceful protests which won’t cause any damage but is less likely to be noticed as it isn’t as controversial. i believe everyone should be given the same opportunities and no one should experience any form of discrimination, however i also think this is very unlikely to happen, especially quickly, as there is always going to be people that get satisfaction through hate, and all people think differently to each other, meaning debates, fights and protest will keep on happening. there are aspects in many countries , where the law and society aren’t accepting of different people and their beliefs. respect should be taught to engage society and children to not judge others, because of these valued people turn opinionated and feel the need to peruse their negative opinions. in a society a higher class group has much more opportunities rather then a subordinate groups that have been decriminalised for centuries because of the patriarchal government. because there was no diversity in the people ruling the countries, the wrong opinions and views on certain people have been the “norm” for many years. this is why it is necessary to take action now and hopefully some things will change in the future.

In photography, as the movement of identity politics became more relevant, debates started to become more serious and people started to speak up, artists and photographers, songwriters and poets, all kinds of people decided to create work based, or inspired by identity, identity questioning, and making people question themselves. In photography there are many artists that even before the given period 1980-1990, when identity politics became popular, people before then were already making photographs questioning identity issues. one of many inspirational photographers is Claude Cahun, which was a writer and a photographer that said her actual gender was fluid. as she lived between 1894 – 8 December 1954, meaning a lot of the work she made was through world was 2.

Definition for femininity is qualities or attributes regarded as characteristic of women or girls, and definition of masculinity is qualities or attributes regarded as characteristic of men or boys. However a society has their own judgement on what femininity means and what masculine means. There are stereotypes and certain traits that the society generalised on both women and men based on how the majority of each gender act or acted in the past. The characteristics of both femininity and masculinity are usually associated with the bellow :

Masculinity is seen to be the trait which emphasizes ambition, acquisition of wealth, and differentiated gender roles. Femininity is seen to be the trait which stress caring and nurturing behaviours, sexuality equality, environmental awareness.

The video bellow describes how being a man or being a woman is different to being male of female, this is constructed by society, and are socially conditioned to behave a certain way. this also means man and women, as polar opposites and are treated differently. This video also talks about the values being acquired instead of being natural. where the patriarchy pushes males to act like men and for females to act like women and acting contrary to this is discouraged, often leading to social or legal punishment, or both. however what’s interesting is that in different parts of the world, and cultures some values of what it means to be a woman and to be a man differ from other cultures.

Some of ideas what are classified as masculine or feminine a quite random and ridiculous, for example a colour, there are certain colours that have been associated with women and men for years, however some people go to the extremes of giving a colour its specific gender. This is seen with baby’s toys or clothing, this is also helpful for a stranger to identify the child gender, but it shouldn’t not be shameful on men wearing pink at any point in their life, as because the colours are associated with certain genders, they don’t only belong to that gender.

Certain characteristics don’t have to only apply to the gender they are describing, they are seen in both men and women, in some most then others,. In today’s society what it means to be “feminine” or “masculine” can be taken out of context and their definitions can be exaggerated in a negative opinion. For example if a man had a couple of feminine characteristics, like he is caring, shouldn’t mean he is acting like the opposite gender, as a man should be allowed to be feminine if he wishes too, as femininity doesn’t “belong” to just women, likewise with women they are allowed to act, dress or express themselves in a masculine way if they wish too. As it is a stereotype of what a women should act, dress and look like , same with men, in todays society this idea of that stereotype is challenged by many.

As it is typical to see a woman acting feminine or a man acting masculine, when the roles are reversed it may leave people confused as they have been accustomed to seeing women being feminine an man being masculine, this is because the majority of people act according to what they have been thought and what they saw around them, either as a child or even in adulthood. Many don’t wish to challenge the stereotypes as a part of fitting in and belonging within a society, or simple because they are not comfortable with that. For example not every man wishes to dress more famine , but some do and they shouldn’t be discouraged because of what majority of population is doing. However this doesn’t mean it is wrong for a man to wish to act masculine, as this depends on genetics, childhood, society, personal preferences and many more.

As a women many of certain ideas of what it means to be feminine seem exaggerated and absurd , like ways of taking care of their appearance, where now there are many different ways to make a women feel “beautiful” with different cosmetic procedures, from manicure, to even Botox. women are pressured to look after their appearance to look more feminine, hence why many link femininity with beauty, however since it is seen everywhere, either on social media or daily life it feels like all these different procedures are necessary, when in reality the idea of a beauty standard shouldn’t influence women to do harm to their health. The definition of femininity has a big influence on certain women as well as men. Some men could even be scared to be seen slightly feminine, and again might do certain things that harm them for the sake of being more masculine. More extremes of femininity seen in a person and extremes of masculinity seen in a person, could actually be taken as “toxic masculinity” or “toxic femininity” and what is advised is actually a balance of both femininity and masculinity in any person. Not everyone would feel comfortable with that but following the positive aspects of both femininity and masculinity could lead for a person to be completely balanced with less worries about their identity.

Chemigram is an experimental piece of art where an image is made by painting with chemicals on light-sensitive paper. Such as photographic paper, which is light sensitive. It requires, light sensitive paper, developer and fixer. this is the use of materials from silver halide-based photography . Like the photogram, the chemigram is made without a camera, however the difference is that it is created in full light instead of in the darkness of the darkroom. For this reason it is arguably not “light that writes” but rather “chemistry that writes”.

often Chemigrams are produced for artistic aspects, not many agree it is a form of photography. however it is an important little part of photography to understand a little more about the subject, and how it works. Chemigrams show similarly how a camera works. Showing the importance of darks and lights, especially film photography.

In a small group we have went for a trip to experiment with light sensitive paper and understand the chemical process behind Chemigrams. We have used a variety of different materials to create our images, the materials were applied before dipping the paper in a developer/fixer. like wax, glue and different methods to apply the developer of fixer, like through a paintbrush, sponge, spray bottle etc.

A snoot is a tool placed over the strobe head. The snoot controls and directs your strobe flash by creating a narrow or broad light beam in its cast, depending on the effect the shooter desires. Snoots do not create the flash – they are merely a tool used with your existing strobe to direct the light.

The light that the coloured fillers that the snoot has, is then emitted onto the person changing the colour of the image. A disadvantage is that it may get very hot and gloves will have to be used to remove the plastic filters. what may happen is the plastic may melt if it is wrongly adjusted.

I have experimented with different lighting that are emitted by the snoot, but haven’t changed the location of the light stand. However bellow is the basic set up of where the snoot is advertised to be placed.

I have produced a tiny selection of the photographs that look the best to me. I wanted to have a variety of different coloured images and different positions.

Because of the different coloured photographs and different positions, I was able to merge 2 or more images together to create a virtual double exposure.

To create this I have opened 2 separate images in Photoshop and have layered one on top of the other. I have changed the opacity and placement of a layered image which gave a ghost-like appearance .

I have also change the setting of the effect of the image by choosing different blending methods, as well as regulated the strength of the effect.

Final results:

Coming back from studying “the origin of photography” to Henry Mullins, who created over 9,000 portraits of islanders from 1852 to 1873. This is quite impressive as at a time when the population was around 55.000.

His portrait were printed on a carte de visite as a small albumen print, (the first commercial photographic print produced using egg whites to bind the photographic chemicals to the paper) which was a thin paper photograph mounted on a thicker paper card. The size of a carte de visite is 54.0 × 89 mm normally mounted on a card sized 64 × 100 mm. In Mullins case he mounted his carted de visite into an album. Because of the small size and relatively affordable reproducibility carte-de-visite were commonly traded among friends and visitors in the 1860s. Albums for the collection and display of cards became a common fixture in Victorian parlors. The immense popularity of these card photographs led to the publication and collection of photographs of prominent persons.

as well as a full body, in a sitting position photograph, what henry Mullins also did is an addition to the photograph, he presented 4 different headshots in a diamond cameo, which got it’s name because of the layout of the images creating a diamond shape. these headshots were specifically in order of: looking straight at the camera, left side of the face looking to the left, right side of the face, looking Right and a 1/3rd of the face looking away from the camera. the headshots were originally shot in the same format as a large photograph next to them, however what henry did is bleach the rest of the body when developing them, and cut out the unnecessary bleached photograph, so that the headshots are the only ones remaining. he then cut out 4 different slots in a blank card, and the oval cut outs laid on top of the photographs.

I have arranged a photoshoot to try and re-create diamond cameo technique, however I did it digitally where as originally it would be done by physically bleaching the photograph.

To create a virtual diamond cameo arrangement, I have imported the selected pictures into photoshop. From then by selecting a single photograph, by using elliptical marqee tool I have marked out the area, which meant it was selected in an oval shape.

I needed to convert the background to layer from the selected oval, I had to right click and select inverse + delete.

Pressing CTRL + C an CTRL +V. I have copied and pasted the image onto an opened A4 blank sheet.

Using CTRL + T I was able to shrink the image and arrange it where I wanted it on an A4 Document.

Final Results

Rembrandt lighting is a standard lighting technique that is used in studio portrait photography as well as cinematography; it is also used in contrast with butterfly lighting and is popular because it is capable of producing images which appear both natural and compelling with a minimum of equipment.

Rembrandt lighting is named after a famous painter, Rembrandt, his most famous portraits, have a painted similar light pattern on his subjects, that’s why photographers call it Rembrandt lighting.

Rembrandt lighting appears from the side of the face, it is possible to tell this is Rembrandt lightning because of the downward triangle under the persons eye, on the cheek,that triangle is the most obvious light on the half of the face, where the shadows land.

There are many different set ups to achieve Rembrandt lighting, however the key rule to remember is to have the light source at an approximetly 45 degree angle from the camera with an additional reflector or fill-in light on the other side, a harsher light will produce a stronger Dimond shape on the other side of the face and a softer light will produce a fainter.

Below I have had a go at producing photographs using Rembrandt lighting techniques, on one of the photographs the Dimond on the cheek is much stronger then the other. This can be controlled with a harsher or softer light however I changed the exposure and sharpness as well as shadows and highlights to make one of the images more defined and darker.

Butterfly lighting is a lighting pattern used in portrait photography where the key light is placed above and pointing down on the subject’s face. This creates a dramatic shadow under the nose and chin that looks like a butterfly

as the light is above a person, the shadows are more dramatic under the nose, cheekbones, and under the jawline.

The butterfly lighting will effect a portrait drastically , the intensity of the light above will increase the shadows. The quality and intensity of the light can drastically change the effect of the butterfly lighting.

My own results employing butterfly lighting technique:

Chiaroscuro is a high-contrast lighting technique that uses a key light to achieve dark backgrounds with starkly lit subjects.

Leonardo da Vinci is among the old master artists who developed the chiaroscuro technique. The world famous painting The Mona Lisa is an excellent example of this.

The opposite of chiaroscuro lighting is: Flat lighting. Flat lighting is: Highly diffused, slow falloff, highly transparent shadows.

Chiaroscuro lighting can be seen in Film Noir, which is a style or genre of cinematographic film marked by a mood of pessimism, fatalism, and menace. The term was originally applied to American thriller or detective films made in the period 1944–54.

The set up to achieve chiaroscuro lighting, is quite similar to Rembrandt lighting, however this light source would be much sharper and the image produced would have to be quite dark and defined, meaning a diffused box wouldn’t specifically be used.

I have decided to go to “the market” which is an area of a collection of different little businesses, in the centre of town. I have gone past midday, where I knew people would still be working, and the shops would be open, but so it wouldn’t be extremely packed. Since I had a huge variety of places to chose to photograph, I decided to only engage in photographing places that looked unique and interesting as well as looking at people, to pick a person that suits their environment, for example, the clothing.

Sub-Selection

I have looked at the quality and framing of each photograph and picked the best ones to edit.

Editing

I have chosen different filters and editing methods to transform my images, this was because I didn’t want to have similar looking results and wanted the photographs to differ from one another. The different tones were also influenced by the background or person. For example the image bellow had a lot of yellow tones in it therefore I had picked a similar colour but also to tone it down a little. The image bellow that one had many blue tones therefore I exaggerated that effect.

Final Images

To me these are the beast looking images from this photoshoot, and are successful environmental portraits, due to their framing, next time I should aim to get a full body portraits as all my successful final images were of 1/3 of the body or 1/2.

Regarding to the editing, I wanted to turn the images from ordinary to extraordinary by adding more dramatic, unsteady feel to them.

Camera Obscura & Pinhole photography

Camera Obscura was initially used to study eclipses without the risk of damaging the eyes by looking directly into the sun. This also meant a reflected image was able to be traced with accuracy. this invention was not only beneficial for scientists, geographers, physicists but also artists. From the 17th century onward some artists used it as an aid to plotting compositions. it was revolutionary to artists as they could perfect their sketches and paintings by tracing the subjects, to make their artwork highly realistic. Comparing to times now this was the beginning of photography, where camera obscura acts as an ancestor of modern cameras.

Also referred to as a pinhole image, it lets light in through a small opening on one side and projects a reversed and inverted image on the other.

The surroundings of the projected image have to be relatively dark for the image to be clear. The human eye works a lot like the camera obscura; both have an opening (pupil), a biconvex lens for refracting light, and a surface where the image is formed (retina).

Early camera obscura devices were large and often installed inside entire rooms or tents. Later, portable versions made from wooden boxes often had a lens instead of a pinhole, allowing users to adjust the focus. Some camera obscura boxes also featured an angled mirror, allowing the image to be projected the right way up.

The history behind Camera Obscura goes do far back to even 4th,6th, 9th century where camera obscura, although not called that, was already present in different form or hints of the experiments that lead to the same idea, the idea that light can be transported into a projector-like mechanism-camera obscura. in 15th century when Leonardo da Vinci started drawing and noting information on the devise, however it wasn’t until 17th century it was decided by art historians to officially introduce it where Dutch master Johannes Vermeer used the camera obscura as an aid to create his paintings.

Abelardo Morell, an contemporary artist, is widely known for creating photographs of indoor rooms, however turning a room into a Camera Obscura. one of his popular photographs is where he turned a room in SANTA MARIA DELLA SALUTE INSIDE PALAZZO BEDROOM, VENICE, ITALY. Of a popular view in Italy, or even in the world.

Once I have visited his own site, I came across many other photographs of different scenery inside different rooms.

Here is a video showing how anyone can produce the same results as Abelardo Morell’s,

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gvzpu0Q9RTU, this experiment is exactly what a single camera obscura device did, inside the box, this is possible because the room becomes the box, it needs to be completely dark and the image needs to be a fixed image in order for this to work.

Nicephore Niepce & Heliography

Nicéphore Niépce (1765 – 1833) was an inventor from France. He had many other inventions, however he is mainly considered the inventor of photography.

 As he was fascinated in camera obscura, in 1816, he used camera obscura and paper coated with silver chloride to capture small images. his experimentation began, experimenting with other substances, he found Bitumen of Judea – asphalt that can be found in nature and that artists used to make etchings. This bitumen had a characteristic to become less soluble after it had been left exposed to light. the little images were in negative and were not fixed so they would turn completely black when exposed to the light. He dissolved bitumen in lavender oil and covered a metal plate with it. When it is dried, plate was covered with paper that had a drawing on it and left on sun like that. After some time, bitumen would harden while the shielded was still soft and could be removed with solvent. Bare parts of plate could then be etched with acid and plate used for printing. Niépce called this method heliography, meaning “sun drawing”. First images that he made with this method were made in 1822 but they didn’t survive to this day.

I have found a video explaining his experiment visually https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xK93KnmcpK8

In 1824, Niépce used, for the first time, bitumen plates in camera obscura to take a picture. This picture of the view from a window in his house didn’t survive but he made another like it in 1826 or 27 and that photography is considered the oldest surviving photography. this is why he is considered the first ever photographer.

Louis Daguerre & Daguerreotype

At the same time as Niepce, Louis Daguerre was also fascinated with photography, and in 1829, Niépce entered into a partnership with him. They kept on expanding and developing the method until Niépce died in 1833.  Daguerre continued experimenting and developed his process that he called “daguerréotype”

In January of 1839, the invention of a photographic system that would fix the image caught in the camera obscura was formally announced in the London periodical The Athenaeum.

His method was used in portraiture for smaller photographs on plates, these made great to mail size as they fitted in an envelope easily, but because of a still “complex” process to produce, were not widely available and mainly for wealthier community.

The video bellow explains how a daguerreotype was created. it was made by treating silver-plated copper sheets with iodine to make them sensitive to light, then exposing them in a camera and “developing” the images with warm mercury vapor. The fumes from the mercury vapor combined with the silver to produce an image. The plate was washed with a saline solution to prevent further exposure. this was a step up to Heliography, the photographs we much more sharper, were developed quicker and lasted for longer.

the above image is quite revolutionary, especially for Louis Daguerre, because his daguerreotypes took few minuets to develop, every moving object in between would simply not be captured, this is why one of a busy street in France is so empty, what’s interesting is that the only people in the photograph are a shoe polisher boy and a man, this is only because they were still for enough time for the daguerreotype to develop.

Henry Fox Talbot & Calotype

Henry Fox Talbot is the original creator of the positive and negative process in photography, he created so called calotype. Sometimes called a “Talbotype.” This process uses a paper negative to make a print with a softer, less sharp image than the daguerreotype, but because a negative is produced, it is possible to make multiple copies. 

Talbot became frustrated that he was let down, when trying to capture what was right in front of his eyes, he tried drawing and camera obscura but he still was unsatisfied with the results, he wanted to have “the inimitable beauty of the pictures of nature’s painting which the glass lens of the Camera throws upon the paper in its focus—fairy pictures, creations of a moment, and destined as rapidly to fade away.” he wanted to have something that isn’t temporary and that doesn’t have to require artistic talent to create.  “how charming it would be if it were possible to cause these natural images to imprint themselves durably, and remain fixed upon the paper.”

in 1834, when coming back to Lacock Abbey, he reconnected with this idea that occurred to him and later, within a few months, he began to experiment with the idea that had occurred to him at Lake Como and soon found that a sheet of fine writing paper, coated with salt and brushed with a solution of silver nitrate, darkened in the sun, and that a second coating of salt impeded further darkening or fading.

He set a pressed leaf or plant on a piece of sensitized paper, covered it with a sheet of glass, and set it in the sun. Wherever the light struck, the paper darkened, but wherever the plant blocked the light, it remained white. He called his new discovery “the art of photogenic drawing.”

Talbot then has mainly been working on this between 1835 and 1839, the same time when Louis Daguerre, had invented recording camera pictures with precision on metal plates.

he then later discovered that an exposure of mere seconds, leaving no visible trace on the chemically treated paper, nonetheless left a latent image that could be brought out with the application of an “exciting liquid”. This discovery, which Talbot patented in February 1841 as the “calotype” process (from the Greek kalos, meaning beautiful), opened up a whole new world of possible subjects for photography.

However  even his far more stable calotypes fixed with hypo(A more permanent means of “fixing” the image with hyposulfite of soda, proposed by Talbot’s friend the eminent scientist Sir John Herschel) were inconsistent in their permanence, many deteriorating in quickly.

One of the key problems, which remained an issue for decades after the birth of photography, was not making the image in the first place, ‘fixing’ it, so that it was a stable picture which did not fade. Talbot himself spent many years trying to make his photographic images permanent, with many failed attempts.

Robert Cornelius & self-portraiture

 only a few months after Louis Daguerre announced his invention, an amateur chemist, took this self-portrait 175 years ago in the back of his family’s silver-plating shop in Philadelphia. On the back, Cornelius wrote: “The first light Picture ever taken. 1839.” It was one of the first Daguerreotypes to be produced in America.

With his own knowledge of chemistry and metallurgy, as well as the help of chemist Paul Beck Goddard, Cornelius attempted to perfect the daguerreotype. Around October 1839, at age 30, Cornelius took a self-portrait outside the family store. The daguerreotype produced is an off-centre portrait of himself with crossed arms and tousled hair., however this meant he had to sit motionless for 10-15 minuets due to the quality of the photographic plate and the technique used.

Cornelius’ photo is the oldest known intentional photographic portrait of a person made in the United States, this is because Louis Daguerre photograph, Boulevard du Temple, included 2 people by accident.

Julia Margeret Cameron & Pictorialism

Pictorialism– is an international style and aesthetic movement that dominated photography during the later 19th and early 20th centuries. it refers to a style in which the photographer has somehow manipulated what would otherwise be a straightforward photograph as a means of creating an image rather than simply recording it.

What makes Cameron such an important role in photography, is her influencing the development of pictorialism. it is her discoveries, talent and creativity that influenced others to be experimental with any medium. she was the first to stick with creating “flawed” images, the cracks, spills and discovered photographs would be thought by many to not be worthy enough as an photograph had to be a form of record. she challenged that meaning with manipulating her images to look unfinished or raw because that became her style. she was interested in photography not in the way many were at the time, she was different, which lead to her being an important figure.

As a gift from her son-in-law and her daughter, Julia Margaret Cameron was 48 when she received her first camera, she then started to pursue her passion for photography. she was so passionate she even rearranged and changed areas of her house for her personal studio “I turned my coal-house into my dark room, and a glazed fowl-house I had given to my children became my glass house!“

She experimented with printing photographs from negatives, experimented in the early 1860s, but at Around 1863, she got gifted the camera. Though Cameron took up photography as an amateur and considered herself an artist, and despite never making commissioned portraits nor establishing a commercial studio, she thought of her photographic activity as a professional endeavour, actively copyrighting, publishing, and marketing her work.

She sometimes scratched into her negatives to make corrections; printed from broken or damaged negatives and occasionally used multiple negatives to form a single picture, she didn’t mind a certain level of visible imperfection.

One of her most extreme examples of manipulating a negative can be seen in a portrait of Julia Jackson(the image above). Cameron scratched a picture into the background of this pious portrait of her niece, to create a hybrid photograph-drawing. The drawing of a draped figure in an architectural setting evokes religious art. She fought of photography being her art, she would rearrange the subjects how she wanted to fit her visions. this is important as not many thought of this side of photography yet, the artistic and self expressionist side.

Henry Mullins & Carte-de-Visit

Moving to Jersey in 1848, Henry Mullins set up a studio known as the Royal Saloon at 7 Royal Square after previously working in London. His son Gustav Mullins was born in St Helier, Jersey, in 1854.  Mullins became a partner in the business in 1883, leading to the now famous brand of ‘Hughes and Mullins’. HIs son, was a portrait photographer, patronised by Queen Victoria. and has produced many photographs of the royal family.

Henry’s speciality were cartes de visite. Cartes de visite consist of a print stuck to a card mount of about 4 ⅛” x 2 ½” in size. The prints were mostly albumen and, later, emulsion based printing-out-paper. Other processes, including carbon and Woodburytype, were also used.

Cartes de visite considerably reduced the cost of having a portrait taken and made it within reach of most people, as a result there was a dramatic increase in the number of studio photographers.