It’s an approach towards understanding, knowledge, life, being, art, technology, culture, sociology, philosophy, politics and history that is REFERENTIAL – in that it often refers to and often copies other things in order to understand itself. New expressions of identity and being are actually new iterations (versions) of previous expressions of popular culture. It is therefore possible to understand postmodernism as a complicated and fragmentary set of inter-relationships, a practice of re-imagining, pastiche, bricolage and self-referentiality. 

The difference between a pastiche and parody: A pastiche is a work of art, drama, literature, music, or architecture that imitates the work of a previous artist, a parody is a work or performance that imitates another work or performance with ridicule or irony

Narrative theory can be applied to moving image texts but in many ways, narrative theory transcends a specific media form. Film and television holds a very great significance that links with our day-to-day lives and even our ambitions and dreams.

Narrative structures can vary. Many films follow a linear structure, that starts with a beginning, follows to a middle and finishes with an end. However, some films follow a different narrative structure such as non-linear, which means the film jumps around to different time zones.

Memento = non linear due to the fact it is unclear as to what part is the beginning and what part is the end.

Elision and ellipsis = not played in real time. Films often included flashbacks and flash-forwards to break the linear sequence.

Narrative strands are even able to be flagged up as something that will be fully explained later on in a film, this is known as foreshadowing.

Dramatic irony is also a narrative feature in many films. This occurs when the audience are made aware of something that the characters do not know.

Roland Barthes theory: Proairetic sand hermenuetic codes

Proairetic: action, movement, causation

Hermenuetic: reflection, dialogue, character,

Enigma code: the way in which intrigue and ideas are raised – which encourage an audience to want more information.

“Leonard Shelby, an insurance investigator, suffers from anterograde amnesia and uses notes and tattoos to hunt for the man he thinks killed his wife, which is the last thing he remembers.” – Google’s summary of Memento.

Memento is told in reverse, we find out the conclusion to the plot at the very beginning of the film (Todorov’s traditional Narrative structure has been reversed, fragmentary). It touches on topics such as:

• There is no cohesive identity, no ‘real you’; we are different people in each individual situation, virtual and actual. Our identities are in constant flux.
• There is no ‘truth’ in history (personal or national), memory cannot be relied upon as evidence for knowledge;
• People who claim to know the ‘truth’ can’t be trusted;
• Fiction and fact depend on each other to the point that they can’t be divided – in the end they can’t be separated;
• Knowledge doesn’t ‘add up’ cohesively to ‘truth’; there are too many contradictory elements.

These topics can be translated into codes, specifically Roland Barthes Proairetic and Hermeneutic codes.

Christopher Nolan’s inspiration for Memento was based on a semi-postmodernism novel, Waterland written by Graham Swift, “an examination of the end of History, the trajectory of the promise of the Enlightenment. It is set in the 80’s, but looks backwards through history, centering around 1943 providing three different plots” – Jessica on Goodreads.com. Therefore the film is intertexualised from this book.

https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/148639.Waterland

Structuralism has been very powerful in its influence on narrative theory. Its main virtue is that it is most interested in those things that narratives have in common, rather than in the distinctive characteristics of specific narratives.

When looking at moving image products, it is therefore possible to look for patterns, codes, conventions that share a common features. In other words, narrative theories look at recognisable and familiar structures, that help us to understand both how narratives are constructed and what they might mean.

Narratives are organised around a particular theme and space and are based in an idea of time

they start at ’00:00′ and run for a set length. This means that they normally have a beginning, middle and end. “A whole is what has a beginning and middle and end” Aristotle Poetics (c.335BC).

Vladimir Propp (character types and function)

suggests that stories use STOCK CHARACTERS to structure stories. That is not to say that all characters are the same, but rather to suggest that all stories draw on familiar characters performing similar functions to provide familiar narrative structures.

CHARACTERS FUNCTION TO PROVIDE NARRATIVE STRUCTURE:

1. Hero
2. Helper
3. Princess
4. Villain
5. Victim
6. Dispatcher
7. Father
8. False Hero

Definitions:

Elision – he omission of a sound or syllable when speaking (as in I’m, let’s ).

Elipsis – the omission from speech or writing of a word or words that are superfluous or able to be understood from contextual clues.

Simultaneous narrative – Narrative art is art that tells a story, either as a moment in an ongoing story or as a sequence of events unfolding over time. Some of the earliest evidence of human art suggests that people told stories with pictures.

Parallel narrative – denotes a story structure in which the writer includes two or more separate narratives linked by a common character, event, or theme. Parallel stories enrich a work and have been used by playwrights and novelists for centuries.

Dramatic Irony – the expression of one’s meaning by using language that normally signifies the opposite, typically for humorous or emphatic effect.

Foreshadowing – be a warning or indication of (a future event)

Non-sequiturs – A non sequitur is a conclusion or reply that doesn’t follow logically from the previous statement. … Non sequiturs are often used for comedic effect in movies, novels, and TV shows. When someone says a non sequitur, it usually means the person was off in her own thoughts and not listening to the other person.

Light & shade – Light is the positive moments within the film such as humor which lighten the tone or mood of the movie. Shade is the darker moments within the film.

Propp

CHARACTERS FUNCTION TO PROVIDE NARRATIVE STRUCTURE:

1. Hero
2. Helper
3. Princess
4. Villain
5. Victim
6. Dispatcher
7. Father
8. False Hero

Narrative Functions

1. PREPARATION
2. COMPLICATION
3. TRANSFERENCE
4. STRUGGLE
5. RETURN
6. RECOGNITION

Todorov

Most stories can be easily broken down into a BEGINNING / MIDDLE / END. :

• Equilibrium
• Disruption
• New equilibrium

Levi – Strauss

NARRATIVES (=myths) are STRUCTURED around BINARY OPPOSITIONS eg: good v evil; human v alien; young v old etc etc.

Chatman

• Kernels: key moments in the plot / narrative structure
• Satellites: embellishments, developments, aesthetics

Barthes

• Proairetic code: action, movement, causation
• Hermenuetic code: reflection, dialogue, character or thematic development
• Enigma code:

Memento

• non linear narrative
• no clear beginning, middle or end.
• staggered narrative
• clear kernels and satellites

Key Words / Ideas

• not real time / live – Elision or Ellipsis
• Flashbacks
• Flash forwards
• Simultaneous
• Parallel
• Foreshadowing
• Dramatic Irony
• Non – sequitars
• Light & Shade
• Proairetic
• Hermenuetic

This structural approach could also be referenced to Freytag’s Pyramid exposition, inciting incident, rising action, climax, falling action, resolution, and denouement

stories use STOCK CHARACTERS to structure stories.

NARRATIVES (=myths) are STRUCTURED around BINARY OPPOSITIONS eg: good v evil; human v alien; young v old etc etc.

Kernels = Important to be in the narrative for it to make sense

Satellites = moments in the narrative that could be removed and wouldn’t cause too much disruption

Todrov = beginning middle and end

Roland Barthes: Proairetic and Hermenuetic Codes

Not in real time

elision and ellipsis – when you drop something out eg. a chunk of time because otherwise if the film was in real time it would be very boring

Flashbacks and Flashforwards

Parallel or simultaneous narrative

Keep the audience active to fill in the gaps – create puzzles or enigmas (encourage the audience to want more information)

Dramatic Irony – the audience know something that the characters don’t

Foreshadowing

Non-sequitars – aspects of the story that is irrelevant and doesn’t go anywhere eventually (adds interest)

Light and Shade – lighter/slightly comical scenes to break up the dark

parallel narrative- where separate stories/narratives take place simultaneously/at the same time.

proairetic Code:  action, movement, causation

 hermenuetic Code:  reflection, dialogue, character or thematic development

Enigma code: Raise ideas for the audience to intrigue them which makes the audience want more information

Structuralism has been very powerful in its influence on narrative theory. Its main virtue is that it is most interested in those things that narratives have in common, rather than in the distinctive characteristics of specific narratives.

Started with the ending reversed and then jumped to “present day”

Monologue

Middle: attacked acused guy and there was a confrontation, killed him. reverses back to the very start of the day again, giving away clues and hints as well as lean what Lenard is like. He doesnt remember anything in short term but remembers his wife dying. writed himself notes to remember things so he can find his wifes killer

According to Thompson (1990) ‘in studying narrative structure, we can seek to identify the specific narrative devices which operate within a particular narrative, and to elucidate their role in telling a story

Narrative:

story:

plot:

Binary Oppositions: how a story will always have a good protagonist and a bad antagonist

Ellison or Elipsis- Flash forward or flashback and some content can go missing such as a half hour to meet someone. These also tend to break a linear sequence.

Dramatic Irony: audience know something that the characters of a narrative don’t.

Foreshadowing: Where something/ plot line is hinted at before the event occurs.

• narratives are made of many things : sound,image,text,etc…
• follow a theme
• usually linear + sequential
• narratives tell stories through linear communication

MOMENTO

• there isn’t a clear narrative
• repeats itself
• narrative is fragmented – just like momento with Leonard’s condition
• inconsistent narrative (jumps from present to future)

CLAUDE LEVI-STRAUSSE

• narrative based on binary opposition
• good vs evil
• key themes create a set of messages which the audience can decode and understand
• audience can make judgments about characters

ELISION AND ELLIPSIS

• some elements are missing
• not linear, not real time
• flashbacks and flash forwards

• parallel / simultaneous narrative
• makes audience fill in the gaps (E and E)

• dramatic irony (telling audience something characters don’t know)
• foreshadowing
• use of light and shade (contrast)

BARTHES

• proairetic code – action, movenment
• hermenuetic code – reflection, dialogue, character development
• enigma code – way intrigue ideas are raised

Roland Barthes – Proairetic and Hermeneutic Codes

• Proairetic code: action, movement, causation
• Hermeneutic code: reflection, dialogue, character or thematic development

Vladimir Propp – 8 Stock Character types, Spheres of Action

8 STOCK CHARACTER TYPES

1. Hero
2. Helper
3. Princess
4. Villain
5. Victim
6. Dispatcher
7. Father
8. False Hero

SPHERES OF ACTION

The types of character types we identify with and adopt. Each character follows an individual narrative with multiple different functions that is essential in organising the characters in a plot. These narratives can be watered down and divided into 6 types of mini narrative plots:

1. PREPARATION
2. COMPLICATION
3. TRANSFERENCE
4. STRUGGLE
5. RETURN
6. RECOGNITION

Todorov – Narrative Structure = Equilibrium, Disruption, New Equilibrium (Includes resolution)

• Equilibrium
• Disruption
• New equilibrium

Seymour Chatman – Satellites & Kernels

• Kernels: key moments in the plot / narrative structure
• Satellites: embellishments, developments, aesthetics

Levi-Strauss – Binary opposition

NARRATIVES (=myths) are STRUCTURED around BINARY OPPOSITIONS, e.g. Love VS Hate, Good VS Bad

Tripartite narrative structure (Tztevan Todorov)

• Equilibrium
• Disruption
• New equilibrium

This structural approach could also be referenced to Freytag’s Pyramid exposition, inciting incident, rising action, climax, falling action, resolution, and denouement as illustrated below.

Vladimir Propp (Character Types and Function)

STOCK CHARACTERS 

1. Hero
2. Helper
3. Princess
4. Villain
5. Victim
6. Dispatcher
7. Father 
8. False Hero

Often there is a villain who has done something to a victim. This means that we need a hero, who (often) accompanied by a helper is sent out (by a dispatcher) to fight the villain. The dispatcher or similar donor(such as a father figure) prepares the hero in his ‘quest‘ and gives the herosome magical object. Thehero generally meets the princess as part of his quest / journey which usually provides a happy ending. During the narrative we (and the princess) may be presented by a false hero.

Spheres of Action

1. PREPARATION
2. COMPLICATION
3. TRANSFERENCE
4. STRUGGLE
5. RETURN
6. RECOGNITION

Claude Levi-Strauss (Binary Oppositions)

BINARY OPPOSITIONS eg: good v evil; human v alien; young v old etc etc. 

Elision- speeds up, simplifies, and generally enhances the flow of conversation.

Ellipsis- Ellipsis concerns the omission of a section of the story that is either obvious enough for the public to fill in or concealed for a narrative purpose, such as suspense or mystery.

Seymour Chatman: Satellites & Kernels

• Kernels: key moments in the plot / narrative structure -absolutely essential to the story / plot / narrative development
• Satellites: embellishments, developments, aesthetics

Roland Barthes: Proairetic and Hermenuetic Codes

• Proairetic code: action, movement, causation
• Hermenuetic code: reflection, dialogue, character or thematic development
• Enigma code: the way in which intrigue and ideas are raised – which encourage an audience to want more information.