Exit from the factory – 22 March 1895

Films showing progress of transport, usually by strapping a camera to the front of a vehicle moving forward. Where only the track and scenery can be scene

‘The sick kitten’ (1903) includes the first close-up to show the kitten eating the food and ‘Life of an American Fireman’ (1903) includes the earliest example of continuity editing, notably during the final scenes of the rescue of the woman and her child

Florence Lawrence (January 2, 1886 – December 28, 1938) was the first film actor to be named publicly

Directed by D. W. Griffith, (1915) controversial because considered propaganda due to the message that black people couldn’t become part of the American society as equals to the white and re sparked the KKK movement

Considered the Danish film industry the best in the world because it took film seriously

Directors such as Benjamin Christensen, Urban Gad and films: Häxan, The Abyss were considered ‘remarkable’ by Cousin’s

One of the most arguably innovative editing aspects of Breathless is the jump cuts which seem quite random but help to elevate the film and give it character. An example of this comes from the opening scene, where Michel converses with a woman getting changed. As the scene continues, jump cuts are frequently used to join random fragments of the scene together. Sometimes, this does not necessarily make sense but keeps the audience fully engaged and on edge because they are interested due to the unawareness of what will happen next.

This scene in particular draws the audience in immediately because they want to know what will happen next. By using such random jump cuts, they are kept on their edge of their seat at all times and aware that anything could happen next. Although they seem aimless and very random, they play a pivotal role and purpose in retaining a methodical, yet chaotic and sometimes messy pace of the film. Jump cuts are also used to represent the reckless nature of Michel. After shooting the police officer, a jump cut is used to show him carelessly driving in Paris. This abrupt change can show that he does not care about getting caught and the chaotic jump cut used to transition the scenes can represent his careless nature. Since Michel kills the officer for almost no apparent reason, this careless behaviour is reflected in the editing style as an abrupt and considered unnecessary jump cut is used to transition scene. This is significant because it develops Michel’s character

Another significant example of a jump cut occurs when Michel and Patricia are in the convertible. While the two carry out a conversation, bits of dialogue are skipped out which seems more confusing to the audience as we try to make sense of what they are hearing. This suggests that time has passed, as they have been conversing. A more conventional way to show time passing in films was to film the entire conversation or use one continuous shot. However, Godard adapts his film by using jump cuts instead.

This technique was practically unheard of and certainly not used to the degree or skill displayed in Breathless. But it is significant because it ensures verisimilitude by making the conversations seem dull and boring. In comparison with other editing techniques used at the time this is significant to engage the audience. In this particular scene, the jump cut is considered important because it represents the wildness and unpredictable nature of Michel since we do not know what he is going to say or do next. This has a significant impact on the audience because it continues to develop his character which makes him seem more relatable; specifically to a younger, more rebellious audience who could’ve experienced a similar situation. As a result of this, the film would become more popular since it is more real and relatable compared to the other absurd film plots such as ‘Classe Tous Risques’ (1960, by Claude Sautet) where there is quite a lot of shootings and violence where it may seem unnecessary. It comparison, Breathless utilises more believable action, and even when there in unnecessary dialogue, everything seems to have a purpose.

Breathless can be considered innovative because it breaks the common conventions at the time and establishes an avant-garde style which goes onto influence many aspects of later and contemporary cinema. A notable example include ‘Bonnie and Clyde’ (By Arthur Penn, 1966) which contains numerous visual references to Breathless but also follows the same sort of concept. Clyde represents the wild, impulsive character of Michel whereas Bonnie is alike the free-spirited Patricia. The characters of Breathless themselves are revolutionary at the time of release. Crime was remarkably common in the 1950’s, with most young people turning to either petty or serious crimes to fund fancy lifestyles. France was full of rebellious youth, and many turned to the characters of Michel and Patricia who seemed like glamorous rebels. Although this seemed like it may have caused issues, it served as inspiration for the characters of other films such as, like explained previous, Bonnie and Clyde. But the characters were representative of their time, which means that they would’ve been relatable therefore the film would further resonate with the audience because the characters could be admired and understood by young people who had perhaps went through similar experiences

It is arguable to say that Godard focuses on the visual style of his films opposed to the natural narrative. Although the plot is fresh and relatable to the French youth of 1960, it is admittedly nothing new nor exciting compared to the range of crime dramas globally available at the time. Films like ‘The Truth’ (1960, by Henri-Georges Clouzot) follow a similar criminal and very dramatic narrative and plot structure. However, the visual style of ‘The Truth’ is very basic and it relies heavily on action and drama through the plot and acting to achieve success. However, Breathless utilizes many new innovative cinematographic techniques to elevate the film and ensure that it is different compared to the large market available at the time. Unlike the other crime dramas, Breathless focuses on the editing opposed to the plot and although the characters are significant; most of their personality and traits are expressed through this editing such as representing Michel as carless through the wild and seemingly unnecessary jump cuts. Although the plot is not anything special, the editing is what makes the film unique because it had never been seen before by any other director or editor

This style of focusing on how the film looks, influences well-known director Quentin Tarantino. In particular, his 1994 crime ‘Pulp Fiction’ is heavily influenced by many aspects of the editing form Breathless but also the characters and general feel of the film. Jump cuts are used throughout the film, and there are occasional monologues which seem to make no sense. This style was heavily conceived by Godard, who innovated such unique techniques. In general, the editing style of Godard influences the drop in continuity editing in favour for jump cuts, longer shots and a wider focus for cinematography and editing opposed to narrative and plots. This has an interesting impact on films because it sets them apart from similar genres and plots by ensuring a unique visual style and look.

At the time, most popular Hollywood films adopted a typical, continuity style of editing. Everything seemed to make visual sense and aside from montages and cuts, the visual style was usually basic and easy to understand for the audience. However, Godard breaks this convention right at the start of the film. The film begins with alternating shots of a close-up of Michel and another close-up of a woman. By using close-ups, we get the impression that the characters are positioned close to each other because of the proximity we are viewing them from. However as wide shots are introduced instead, we see that they are positioned quite distant. This may confuse viewers, who are used to the simple and easily perceivable style of continuity editing used by many Hollywood films. Another unique element of Breathless’ editing is the varying shot length. Certain films adopt a usual shot style, by utilizing fast cuts to break up shots or slow, drawn out shots which build tension.

Whereas Breathless uses a mix of shot lengths, to keep a firm control over the pace but also the emotions of the audience. Godard also uses elliptical editing, in a similar way to jump cuts which gives the audience the impression that the action is as irrational and reckless as the character of Michel. Since we are not shown everything from the scene, the abrupt style of editing continues. This reflects the character of Michel because he is shown throughout the film as so careless, which is clearly reflected in Godard’s chaotic editing style. This is quite an innovative technique adopted by Godard because continuity editing was still popular at the time, and most films conventionally made sense while watching. Breathless defied this convention and stereotype of French films by making things seem confusing but ultimately setting Breathless aside from other French crime dramas because no other director or cinematographer had used such a bizarre yet effective editing technique.

Sequences are typically long and monologues are used primarily by Michel to represent his chaotic, yet candid thoughts as he goes about his actions. The jerking, sometimes hard to follow visual style is interesting because it continues the abrupt, jarring editing style within the film. Since this represents Michel’s character, we can assume that he is not behaving rationally because the camera style is shaky and out of control, perhaps representing his wild and careless thoughts. This is only just one example of Godard representing the characters through the cinematography, a technique which although may seem unintentional: is vital in keeping the audience engaged with the action and feel invested with the characters. Monologues were not typically common at the time, during the year of release, there were many French drama and crime films produced which led to the need for diversity. Many films, such as ‘The Hole’ (1960, by Jacques Becker) utilise action and short shots to keep the audience on the edge of their seat. Whereas Breathless breaks this convention and uses long shots to ensure verisimilitude by keeping the audience fully engaged and ready for what will happen next. Although the sequences and shots seem sometimes unnecessarily long, they keep a chatty and unique element to the film which makes it so influential

Verisimilitude is broken by Godard continually throughout the film, as we are constantly reminded that we are watching an actual film. This comes in the form of broken and seemingly meaningless dialogue which does not make sense to the audience but we are reminded that this is a film because we are forced to try and understand what is going on. Since the editing and conversations are not straight forward, the audience have to perceive what is happening. This breaks the verisimilitude because the audience cannot fully immerse themselves in the film as they are constantly questioning what is happening and trying to make sense of the sometimes confusing style adopted by Godard. But Godard deliberately utilizes this technique because he does not view cinema as an immersive experience but rather thinks a main purpose is to inform and engage the audience by making them think. Perhaps this is significant in not only setting Breathless aside as such a unique film but also breaking the conventions of typical film at the time.

Another innovative technique used by Godard is the lack of colour stock in favour for black and white. This creates a unique effect by setting Breathless apart from the other films which were typically in colour at the time. Although colour film was still very expensive in the 1950’s, more popular films were beginning to use it. This technique may seem intentional as Godard may just be using black and white to save money, but the lack of colour can represent the honesty of the film because it does not hold back.

In general, Breathless is innovative perhaps unintentionally because it focuses on defying the Hollywood conventions of the 1950’s and also tries to retain a low budget. Many of the interesting styles are accidental: jump-cuts are used to keep the film under an hour and a half runtime and black and white is used instead of colour film due to high expenses.

‘Strike’ directed by Sergei Eisenstein is the first example of Soviet cinema which had both an emotional but also visual impact on the audience. The fast paced yet intelligent and thoughtful editing influences a range of other films and the innovative montage style is cited as being one of the most visually appealing elements within film. Eisenstein utilises a variety of montages to exhibit a strong hold over the pace of the film. Regardless of the varied montage style adopted by Eisenstein, the film mainly uses intellectual montage to show the extremely thought-provoking emotion clear in the film. Although it can be regarded as a form of propaganda, it is a remarkably emotional piece of film because of the harsh reality and messages shown.

Parallel and rhythmic montages are used to represent the severity of the conditions and resonates with the audience at the time because they were experiencing what was happening. In turn, this was extremely significant in immersing the audience because they understood what was happening so could engage further with the film; ultimately getting the most emotion and experience from the film. In particular, parallel montages are used to show clear themes of divide within the society. This is done to perhaps blame greed and selfishness for the social divide because despite being poor; the workers are typically pictured as happy with family compared to the mainly alone industrialists.

‘Strike’ was one of the first classic soviet constructivism films, and the style of soviet montage was used and adapted in many other films. Sergei Eisenstein continued to evolve and adapt his innovative montage technique within other films, most notably; ‘Battleship Potemkin’ released only months after Strike. The concepts of political propaganda continued throughout the later aftermath of the revolution, and films such as ‘Man with the movie camera’ adopted some of the visual style from Strike and the Russian avant-garde movement.

There were many aspects of the film which influenced other later films, particularly the visual style of defined shapes. As well as how the film was composed, the montage style was also very popular and considered so innovative because no other director, cinematographer or editor had achieved such a unique visual style or trademark to such standard and generic political films at the time. As well as the influence on Soviet cinema during the 1930’s, the visual style of Strike and innovative five methods of montage also had a strong influence on contemporary cinema. The overall style and atmosphere of Strike is admired by directors such as Brian De Palma who directed the 1987 drama ’The untouchables’. Despite over a sixty year gap between the two films, De Palma is heavily influenced by Eisenstein and the visual style of Strike. Although different methods of montage appear throughout the film, it is the general style and Mise en scene which is reflective of the innovative political propaganda from 1925 which is most prominent in the piece of contemporary cinema.

One of the main themes from the film, comes as the form of a clear social divide. The workers are seen as worlds away from the industrialists, perhaps representing the widening gap between the classes at the time. Audiences would relate to this, regardless of their class because this idea was actually happening within the society at the time of the tsarist regime ending in 1917. A parallel montage is used to show a happy scene of the workers eating with their family. This shows unity and a bond which resonates particularly with the lower working class at the time of the film’s release. Although they did not have much money, they had love which is shown by their clear happiness.

Next, we are shown a similar scene where the industrialists also eat breakfast. However, they are shown without family to represent their selfish greed leading to a lonely life of isolation. This can represent how despite being richer and more ‘powerful’ than the workers, they are not as happy and loved. This montage is significant because it shows a clear divide, this is more important for the audience at the time because their emotional investment in the film would increase because they are understanding and first-hand experiencing this social divide. However, an interesting way to view a parallel montage is that is gives the audience both sides of the argument. We are shown the workers then industrialists to perhaps represent that we are all human and are more similar than we think regardless of our social, economic differences.

Parallel montage is also used to represent the strong political message within the film and put emphasis on the fact that although the characters and actions may be fictional: the story is very real and honest. A short scene depicts the children working which is not an uncommon occurrence at the time. A parallel montage is then cut to a similar scene where the workers are resting and sleeping. This contrast can represent the struggles and hardships that the youth inherited from the workers. The cut between scenes are fast, and Eisenstein does not linger on a shot too long to create a wild flurry of emotions which would resonate with the audience at the time who would have experienced the events within the film. The cuts are very sharp so we only get a glimpse of what is happening, this is vital in ensuring that the film does not fall into just storytelling. This allows the film to serve as a political message, of which had a far greater impact on the 1920’s soviet audience in comparison with a contemporary audience.

The messages of unfair treatment and social class divide were more significant at the time of the film’s release because they were an actual reflection of the Soviet government at the time. In particular, this parallel montage is significant in representing the impact of the strike on the whole country. By showing children working, this can perhaps serve as a foreshadowing for the long, hard life of labour ahead for the working class generation. Comparing the children working to the workers resting can represent how it will be the new younger generation who will soon take over the working duties. This can show the tedious circle of hardship and work endured by the lower classes, which can evoke sympathy from a contemporary audience whereas understanding and reality from the 1920s soviet audience who would have understood and experienced these feelings.

A parallel montage is used again to juxtaposition shots of the workers meeting against the industrialists’. The workers are surrounded with trees and nature which could perhaps represent the natural aspect of their world. Whereas in comparison, the industrialists are smoking with heavy pillars and artificial props surrounding them. The artificial elements introduced by the industrialists represents the solemn, lifeless aspect of the industrialists who are driven by their own power and greed. Although the workers are poor, they are surrounded by family and their lives seem much more natural. This is significant because it continues to represent the important theme of social divide, this is particularly important as it shows a physical divide between the two social classes who are very different. By showing them in parallel, we can see that although they are all humans, they live very different lives. This would resonate more with the target audience because they are experiencing this social divide.

Most images are juxtaposed together to convey either political or typically emotional meaning and significance to have a strong impact on the audience. Some shots are parallel edited together to continue with the theme of a social divide and show us both sides of the argument. This is significant because it means that the film is understandable and relatable to the soviet audience of both higher and lower classes. But another significant idea comes from the comparison of animals being slaughtered to the treatment of the workers. An emotive and remarkably significant example of this is the parallel cross cutting of workers running away in fear, to the merciless slaughtering of animals. For perhaps once in the film, the shots are agonizingly long and linger slowly to show the pain and torment.

This is not just done to create pity and understanding from the audience; but also to make them truly make the connection between the overworked, slaughtered animals and the workers who were getting the same treatment. As well as being visually overwhelming, these sensitive scenes have a political impact on the film because they represent the barbaric and horrific treatment of the workers in Russia. These scenes may seem upsetting to the audience, but since they are juxtaposed with shots of workers; it is essential for Eisenstein to get his political representation of the strike across by making the film as sensitive and emotional as possible to resonate with the audience.

Fast cutting is another technique used to speed up the pace which in turn builds up more tension since we are shown lots of images at once which provoke an emotive reaction. The shot length is dramatically shortened so the action is very fast paced and chaotic. Towards the very end of the film, fast cutting is heavily used to perhaps represent the society’s descent into chaos. By showing us the images so rapidly, everything feels bizarre and unnecessarily messy. This represents the wild frenzy of the strike and the jarring impact it had on those involved and the society as a whole. But by juxtaposing such emotive and sensitive scenes together with an almost careless frenzy; the audience are more emotionally invested in the film. This can apply to both the target and contemporary audience because despite not experiencing what was going on, the reality and honesty of the film can evoke emotional reactions from any engaged audience.

Fast cutting is pivotal to retain a fast pace and engage the audience fully because they are awaiting what will happen next, it is also significant in joining the scenes in such a fluid way which really forms a connection with the audience. By tightening the images and shortening the shot length; tension is successfully built because the fast pace keeps us awaiting what will happen next. Using a variety of emotive images juxtaposed together is also significant because it represents the chaotic nature of the strike which would resonate with the audience at the time of the film’s release.

To continue the theme of relating the animals’ slaughter to that of the workers and society; non-diegetic shots are used frequently. This involves shots which are not directly related to the plot or action happening onscreen. For example, shots of animals being slaughtered are juxtaposed with shots of the workers fighting the industrialists. Although the animals are relevant in terms of the film’s message; they bear no significance to the actual plot of the film. The effect of this juxtaposition is to make the audience perceive the deaths of the workers as the same brutal slaughter as the animals. This is done by juxtaposing the seemingly irrelevant shots of animals alongside the workers in a parallel montage to make the similarities obvious to the audience. Although the animals do seem irrelevant; they provide a significant comparison to the brutal treatment of the workers because they are juxtaposed into parallel montages alongside the workers. This is significant because it provides a visual comparison between the two, which will make the audience understand and sympathize for the workers who are getting treated so badly. It also serves as a metaphor for the way workers are treated, alike animals.

By comparing workers to animals; Eisenstein could be suggesting that alike animals, workers were overworked, treated poor and ultimately used for their work. Reducing humans to just animals perhaps serves as a powerful political opinion of Eisenstein that the society was doomed. This could impact anyone watching the film at the time because they could see how badly the society had become.

Eisenstein also uses juxtaposition to have an emotional impact on the audience without necessarily showing the scene’s entirety. When the workers are being shot at, we don’t seem them actually die; shots are just cut to them on the floor dead or the further chaos. This creates a disturbing sense of carelessness and almost normality. Although the scenes are horrendous, it would resonate with the audience because they would’ve experienced what was happening. The shots from where they are running are also juxtaposed into tricking us by seeming very inaccurate. When the workers seem to be running downhill they are actually running uphill.

This illusion is interesting because it represents how despite their failures and attempts they carry on but still have a long battle ahead of them. It also tricks us into thinking that they are continuing into a downward spiral which suggests that they are not going to succeed. This adds more tension to the film because this technique was not used before in cinema. As we see the workers running so much, this could represent how they are trying to escape from the hard, troublesome life of lower class to no avail. This is significant in showing the hardships and issues faced by workers, which would result in understanding from the working class audience at the time who had experienced these hardships.

Tonal montage is also used to create tension and keep the audience engaged. For example, the shot of a ducking represents new beginnings but also innocence. This is then cut to several non-diegetic shots of animals which are irrelevant to the plot but generate the feeling of the workers having a new start. This conveys positivity and happiness for the workers because the duckling is a motif for their newfound freedom and beginning. These shots are held for longer than some other shots within the film which makes the audience understand the relevance of their comparison to the workers new start. This is significant in conveying to the audience that the workers are happy and free, for now. The idea of a young duckling is a picture of innocence and fresh start which can represent the workers at the beginning of the strike. Whereas the harsh reality of the strike and its devastating consequences begin to dawn on the workers; they have lost this likeable innocence which makes the film more relatable because the audience at the time would’ve experienced those feelings first-hand.

Other films are more influenced by soviet constructivism as a movement, most notably the famous ‘Odessa step sequence’ from Battleship Potemkin. The most prominent example of this comes from the repeated motif used in ‘Rocky’ (1976, by Avildsen), of the ascension with steps within the training sequence both in a literal or metaphorical sense. The comparison is close, and Avildsen utilises the popular montage to create tension and reflect the fraught atmosphere similar to Eisenstein. In rocky IV, the juxtaposition of shots detailing the comparison between Rocky and Drago’s different training routines follows Eisenstein’s method of montage. The cuts are very fast between shots, comparing the natural and real training of Rocky with the artificial training of Drago which represents the traits of the two characters.

Intellectual montage is utilised by many filmmakers and cinematographers, in contemporary cinema the most notable film is ‘Requiem for a Dream’ (2000, by Darren Aronofsky). The film includes a collection of montages, which depict meanings without always explicitly showing or stating things. For example, when a character consumes drugs, a fast-paced montage is shown: shots of various things are cut to match the rhythm of the intense music which introduces metric editing. The shots are cut together with simple imagery, such as the packet of drugs, rolled up cash etc. when edited together, a fast paced montage is formed to symbolically show the audience what it is like for the character to take drugs. The narrative is easily transmitted and the meaning is more deeply conveyed than just showing the character taking the drugs because the juxtaposition of shots together represents the wild thoughts of the character and makes the audience sympathize with them because they can see how chaotic their mind has become. The close-up shots are juxtaposed together in a fast, intense montage: which makes the audience experience the world of which they are by taking the drugs. This has a profound impact because the audience would be drawn into the character’s perspective.

Another film which uses intellectual editing is the 1980 autobiographical drama ‘Raging Bull’ by Martin Scorsese. The whole film is in black and white, apart from a montage which juxtapositions still from the boxing match to a collection of home videos which are the only thing in colour. This pays homage to Eisenstein who utilises black and white to focus on the narrative, editing and messages behind certain things. There is also the idea that nostalgia and memory can be tainted, and this is shown through the montage. The idea of two personalities is introduced by the comparison between the sharp, harsh stills of LaMotta in the ring – attacking his opponent in brutal black and white, whereas the warm colours are representative of his seemingly loving relationship with his family. This is a fake concept, as he is later shown as horrid to his family, which is representative of how memories can be tainted. Comparing the black and white to colour scenes represents the fake memories of warmness and compassion to the almost animalistic state of LaMotta while fighting.

The ideas of cubism are also briefly explored through the different viewpoints shown from the varying camera angles. Although this technique may be difficult for the audience to perceive what is actually happening; it introduces more characters and viewpoints which makes the film seem more understandable and reliable. This is an interesting technique because although it is visually hard to follow, it allows the story to develop more because the understanding is more prominent to the audience. By showing multiple viewpoints, the film seems more adaptable since there are multiple ways of looking at things. It can also perhaps represent the vast target audience and how it wold be everyone watching the film. Therefore it would need a large viewpoint to seem realistic to the entire soviet audience of the 1920s. This is significant because it ensures that the film is as accurate and also relatable as it can be.

Wipes are used to make the transition between each scene smooth. The film does not follow any specific narrative or families which may seem slightly dull but interest is added by the wipe bringing each scene to life. This allows the audience to feel engaged as the film is swept into another scene from darkness. This could also represent how the workers are trying to drag themselves away from the hardships and struggles of their everyday life. The shot type is kept as varied as possible to also interest the audience. For example, close-ups are used to show the clear emotion of fear and happiness on the characters faces which would influence the audience’s opinion of them. Depth of field is also something with a varied and relatively restricted use. For example, within the water scenes there is no depth of field. This can perhaps be done to give the film a naturalistic, realistic and also simple style. A result of this is that the film feels more natural and would resonate even more with the audience at the time because they could engage with it fully as it looks as seems believable.

At the time, filmmakers were becoming more creative and started to think outside the box. Change occurred mainly during the late 1910’s, with the formation of the film school VGIK. It’s considered the oldest film school in the world, and was taught by an impressive alumni. It was founded by Vladimir Gardin and involved a number of Russian filmmakers sharing their skills. In particularly the 1930’s, the school was heavily influenced by the work of Eisenstein; most notably ‘Strike’ and ‘Battleship Potemkin’. Between 1934-1991 the school was known as the ‘All-union State Institution of Cinematography’, perhaps due to the success of filmmakers including Kuleshov, Romm and Klimov. This time period was perhaps the birth of Soviet constructivism and led to a wave of new films which didn’t define the ‘normal’, and creativity was beginning to be further explored in comparison to the typical films produced beforehand.

Rhythmic editing is also used to control the pace and creates climatic tension. Cuts are made based around the timing of music paired with the action on screen. This successfully creates tension because the pace of the scene and editing matches the tone of the non-diegetic score. For example, towards the end of the film; the implications of the strike are dangerous for the society as the industrialists fights both workers and civilians. Terror is mainly conveyed by the fast-paced, dramatic score which keeps the audience engaged within the action. The editing in this scene is rhythmic because the fast, short cuts between shots matches the dramatic, fast pace of the score.

The cuts themselves are actually quite simple, perhaps because they appear in places we would expect. In this retrospect, rhythmic editing relies mainly on the pace of the music to establish a general atmosphere for the scene. In this scene; the fast, yet thoughtful and deliberate editing reflects the wild and chaos that is the strike. This would have a profound impact on the audience, who can see, but also understand the wild, intense action happening in the film. The cuts also help the film to flow, because the audio clearly and cleverly matches the onscreen action. Shots appear everywhere on screen in short periods of time, almost overwhelming the audience. This can reflect the overbearing and intense yet honest nature of the film which seems to show too much at once. Although not every shot may seem relevant, each helps to build a sense of power because edited together in one fast intense scene makes the audience emphasize and understand what is going on.

The visual style of Strike was also remarkably unique, which was inspired mainly by the Soviet fine art movement. Sharp, defined shapes and mise en scene was innovative and cinematographer Tisse utilised these clear, evident shapes in a deliberate manner to set Strike apart from any other film: and help ensure that it is quite visually unsettling because it defied conventions at the time. Popular artists such as Talin and Malevich created revolutionary pieces of artwork each which told their own story and conveyed a significant message.

The art movement varied, as each artist put their own spin on their work. However, the movement is based around bold, defining shapes which clearly stand out in the art. This particular type of Mise en scene was used by Tisse who set the visual style of Strike apart from any other film at the time. This was significant because it ensured that the audience would actually want to watch the film and made it interesting opposed to just real and honest. The movement, also known as ’Russian avant-garde’ made a particular breakthrough and development during the revolution of 1917. Propaganda was a main reasoning behind the rapid production of literature and art, which in turn tried to persuade and inform its audiences.  

Cuba-Futurism, Constructivism, and Supremacism with their simple shapes and unimposing structure fitted the new requirements of the movement. The revolution brought around change in Russia, the people were finally gaining control and expressing their views in the country. Many people turned to art to express their thoughts, political parties commanding various forms of propaganda such as leaflets, paintings, books and even architecture on buildings.

The Cabinet Of Doctor Caligari is a silent, German expressionist horror film produced by independent company Decla and directed by Robert Wiene. It was released in 1920, the time period of which Germany had recently lost the war. As a result of the characters and plot, many considered the film as a representation of soldiers returning from war. Janowitz and Mayer had wrote the film, basing it from their distrustful war experiences. This would have resonated well with the audience at the time, since them themes and message of not trusting authority and the line between sanity/insanity was very real for the audience; in particular, the returning soldiers. At the time, Germany was ruled by company UFA. They dominated film within the country as most film studios were owned by them. Decla were not, and were actually quite a small company.

However, they innovated the film to exactly that of what they wanted, creating a masterpiece which has gone on to inspire elements of the horror genre and film noir itself. As a whole, The Cabinet Of Doctor Caligari may not have such an impact on the audience of today as it did to those of 1920. The lasting effects of war not only resulted in a high amount of reparations paid but it also dampened the spirits of the nation; film was considered crucial at a time like this and the film not only entertained the audience but served as a reflection of what they were going through.

Arguably, the bizarre, twisted shapes and illusions can be considered one of, if not the most significant reason as to the film’s success. The use of such oblique shapes twisted into windy back alleys, triangular; absurd buildings and a general atmosphere that something is just not right creates a mood which later goes on to inspire film noir. The distorted shapes can perhaps represent the unsettling mood of the film, since we can physically see that things are not how they should be, this translates to the feelings of fear and unsettlement. Anticipation is created by the illusions which make the audience question what is happening.

This fear can possibly stem from the basis on the First World War. Writers Janowitz and Mayer admitted to basing the film on their experiences within war, and the feelings of dread and unsettlement can come from that of anticipation from the war. Again, these feelings were likely to have a more profound impact at the time of which the film was released because the audience (mainly soldiers) were subject to experience those feelings first-hand. Whereas nowadays, the feelings can be considered not as realistic since we have nothing to really go by to base our fears from so these can be created, alike an illusion. These remarkably strange ideas are based from German expressionist fine art, which also utilises off-balance shapes used to create a sense of fear within the audience. Most notably; ‘The Scream’ by Munch uses similar techniques to create an off-balance atmospheric sense of fear. But as well as fear, the image does not seem right since the lines are not straight as everything seems like an unrealistic illusion. This state of confusion is interesting because it manages to keep a tense mood and engage the audiences fully. A similar technique is used in Dr Caligari to keep the audience anticipating the next move.

The editing within Dr Caligari is unique and innovative because it reflects the unsettling atmosphere of the film. Iris wipes are frequently used to make the transition between scenes much smoother which continues the fraught tension. This technique is adapted and utilised throughout the film’s entirety and many versions are used. In this particular scene, a diamond shaped iris wipe is used to unsettle the audience by showing Cesare. Since we can only see him within the setting, fear is successfully achieved because everything else is blacked out. A fade is used to cut in and out of the scene, giving a smooth transition which is significant in retaining the tension created by the dark, ghoulish lighting. In this particular sense, the iris wipe is vital in keeping the scene as fluid as possible since it can be considered one of the most anticipated and exciting scenes so needs to run smooth. Since we are engaged in the film, the idea of darkness surrounding us ensures verisimilitude because not only does it make us feel part of the film but it represents how we are viewing the film from Francis’ mind and observing his story.

However, iris wipes are also used to represent a flashback. When Francis; the narrator retells the story of the fair, an iris wipe is used immediately after to physically show us a difference in scene which can represent the time period difference; signalling a flashback. The cut emphasises that this is a flashback because the camera’s iris is shut slowly then re-opened. This can represent the reopening of Francis’ ‘memories’ to narrate what happened that day. The physical change in scenes reminds us that there will be clear differences because we can see the change on screen between both the two scenes but also the different time frames. This is vital in showing that there is a clear difference to not confuse the audience as to whether the flashback is actually happening now. This the film does not follow a clear linear, and the flashback demonstrates that there is a time difference. The fluidity of this transition was very significant to show that there is actually a difference because it should not confuse the audience

Iris wipes are so significant because they allow the film to seem ominous. We do not know what is happening next, so by having each shot being ‘wiped’ off screen, we are eagerly awaiting the next frame. This has a profound impact on the audience, particularly that of when it was released; who would not expect such a seamless transition with such fear behind it. The idea of darkness seems to resonate because it fits in with the idea that we are trapped in Francis’ mind. As the darkness swallows the camera, we are further engulfed into Francis’ story as we continue to believe everything he is telling us. Although we later find out that he is an unreliable narrator, we could become unsettled due to the physical darkness engulfing the camera.

There is a lack of intercutting within the whole film due to the difficulty occurring with manual cutting, changing and addition of the film. This meant that it relied on fades and iris wipes to smoothly transition each scene to the next which was important for a horror film but especially for one which builds up tension. However, since the film is silent there are period where scenes cut to title cards which narrate and explain what is going on. This gives us background knowledge and also separates each scene clearly which is useful to ensure that the audience know what is happening and when. This is important because it ensures that we fully understand Francis’ story. As he is the narrator, we trust everything that he tells us without the dialogue to prove this. Title cards explain what is going on, which is significant because it ensures that we fully trust him. By trusting Francis, the ending is more powerful because we could not have anticipated the twist that he is actually telling a story because of his deluded mind. This is significant because it makes the film more surprising for the audience since they did not expect what would happen

Shots vary in length to keep the audiences engaged. For example, when Cesare is first introduced to the audience; the shot lingers on Dr Caligari and Cesare to ensure that the audience realize how significant the characters are. There is also the element of delaying the anticipation, as the audience eagerly await to see how the onscreen audience will react to Cesare. But the shot is dragged out so the tension builds as the audience continue to wait for the reaction. However, when it finally cuts to the audience, the frame only lasts a few seconds before flitting back to Caligari and Cesare. This could perhaps represent the significance of the two characters by getting the audience to focus on them.

the whole film retains a calm and steady pace, especially for something without sound. Scenes flow much more because of the tension build up caused by the iris wipe technique of surrounding the scene and camera in utter darkness. The editing techniques used in Dr Caligari are innovative because they centre on creating fear but also building up tension to make the film as believable as possible. This is significant because the whole film is based around the idea that we believe and trust Francis, the narrator so that the twist ending comes as a massive shock.

Makeup used within Dr Caligari is very significant to the plot because the film is silent, so characters cannot express their emotions through dialogue so have to rely on facial expressions. Throughout the film, detailed and sometimes excessive makeup is used; primarily by Cesare, to express the feelings and thoughts of the character. This is extremely significant because the film is silent, so the audience have to interpret what a character must be thinking or feeling by observing their face. By using such thought provoking, detailed and sharp makeup, we can instantly identify who is good and who is bad by the colour association. In this particular scene, the black eyeshadow is pivotal in displaying the sadistic and murderous intentions of Cesare. Black typically represents darkness and usually evil within horror films; this trope can represent the perception of Cesare as such a malevolent, bad-natured character which would not make the audience like him as it seems as though he is going to kill Jane. Although we now know that the whole scenario was inside Francis’ head, Cesare is shown as a psychopathic killer within this scene by the usage of dark, gothic makeup which is typical within horror films. Moreover, his facial expressions emit this sadistic nature as he grins over Jane. By using dark, excessive makeup we instantly make the assumption that Cesare is the villain and antagonist for the film because his evil nature is conveyed to us primarily through his looks since the film is silent. Whereas Janes’ lack of makeup represents her innocence, in comparison with the dark, heavy makeup of Cesare.

Costume is also used to inform the audience on the thoughts and feelings of the characters, but also to make us aware of what their role within the film is. An obvious example comes from the dark, black clothing of Cesare. We are led to believe that he is an evil, sadistic killer. Although he does not speak, this is expressed through his dark, moody and sinister clothing as we instantly connect black or darkness with evil. Themes of deception are introduced because we find out that Francis, the narrator, is unreliable. Eventually, it is relieved that Cesare is not evil nor a killer and instead just an inmate in the asylum. This can introduce the idea of stereotyping, since darkness is introduced to imply Cesare is our villain. Similarly, Jane is shown with white lace clothing. This is a trope of innocence within films, since white is constantly used to convey innocence. Contrasting the two characters costumes, we can assume that Cesare is evil whereas Jane is harmless and unaware what is happening to her. This is important because aside from the action, there is no other way to explain who the characters actually are and establish their role in the film.

I would consider costume vital as part of Dr Caligari because it gives the audience more suggested information about each character that is missed out due to the lack of dialogue. However, it would have a more significant impact on the audience at the time, because they were more accustomed to reading facial features and physical looks opposed to the modern audience where most character information can be given by the dialogue or narrative. In regards to costume, both Cesare and Dr Caligari hone the typical German expressionistic hairstyle particularly Cesare’s jagged black spikes. They are the two characters in the film with this expressionistic hair styles and also outfits, which can suggest that they are the only ones who actually belong in the twisted and distorted world. However, it turns out that it is Francis who is insane, contradicting this idea that it is Cesare and Dr Caligari who are monsters.

Set design is one of, if not the most important aspect of Dr Caligari which establishes it as such a success and pioneer for German Expressionism. Interestingly, the film was entirely filmed within a studio and everything was artificially created to give an impression of actual locations. This was a relatively new innovation and rarely used beforehand. Shadows are also created by painting dark, black streaks of paint onto the set. This bizarre yet interesting concept creates the artificial impression of shadows which adds to the tension and retains a creepy, climatic atmosphere. This distorts the audience’s perspective as we are faced with an illusion which looks strange and out of place. Buildings are intertwined with twisted, black alleys which makes everything seem not as it should be. Everything seems like it should not fit; doors are round, chairs are remarkably tall and window frames are offset to the point where it seems unnatural. However, an interesting idea is that the characters do not acknowledge this bizarre environment. They live in it alike anyone would go about their day to day life; this could perhaps be a foreshadowing that the ‘reality’ is not in fact true and we are observing some sort of twisted dream or story. This the environment is so twisted and unnatural, this can suggest possibly that what is happening is not reality because it is not natural. Since the film is told through a series of flashbacks, it is suggested that we are actually in the mind of Francis, a mad man. This can be why everything is so distorted; as we are viewing things from his unhinged and insane perspective.

Since the film is filmed entirely within a studio, there is also the idea that there is no access to the real world and the characters are trapped within this hellish nightmare. Fear is a main feelings imposed upon the audience by the unnatural approach to the set. This is very significant in setting the mood for the rest of the film and suggesting that the characters are trapped within this world. We are given a look into the mind of Francis from his perspective since we did not know that his story is fabricated. However, this separate world is disrupted by the elements of normalcy shown through certain sets such as that of Jane’s house. This high end furniture contrasts against the off-balance shown throughout the majority of the film. However, this could represent how Francis feels safe in Jane’s presence since he views everything normally. Whereas his interactions with everyone else is wild and frantic; this is implied by the distorted world tainting his view of the people around him aside from Jane as her house shows that he holds her to high regard. This is important in showing the relationship between Francis and Jane. Although it is later revealed that she is an inmate at the asylum; she is shown throughout the film as a regular woman. She could be perhaps a representation of Francis’ final grasp on normality. Since her makeup and clothing is regular compared with the expressionistic inspired outfits of most of the characters; we can assume that Francis views her with compassion and feels safe within her presence. She is a sense of normality compared with insanity.

Fine art expressionism started around the beginning of the 18^th century, and was originated in Germany. There were some traces beforehand, such as the famous ‘The Scream’, but the movement mainly became popular during the early 1900’s. The warped but unique visual style of Caligari is perhaps one of the most influential aspects of the film and later, the German expressionist movement. It can be difficult to interpret where Wiene got his inspiration from for such a bizarre yet innovative film; but the expressionist fine art movement definitely has some links to the visual style of his work. Art such as ‘The Scream’, by Munch 1893, represent the wildness and unsettling visual appeal expressed in the set and overall look of Caligari. The shapes are less defined here, whereas Wiene uses bold and clear shapes to stand out very clear to the audience. However, alike the painting; Caligari could represent the soldiers at war. Many interpret ‘The Scream’ as soldiers being drove mad by the after impacts and consequences of the war. Regardless of the evident visual influence, it can be considered that Wiene took inspiration from the deep and significant message behind the painting to represent in the form of Caligari.

As a result of this, the visual style of Caligari is set aside from all other work at the time because it is representative of the eerie atmosphere due to the use of unsettling architecture and out of place shapes which create both actual and mental illusions that something is not right. In particular, it is the earlier pieces which have more of an influence on Wiene due to the wild nature creating such a unique impact on an audience which was remarkably uncommon at the time. This led to Wiene becoming more creative, leaving Caligari with one of the most significant and unique sets to the plot that has ever been linked in with a film

Another painting is of similar style and visual appeal to Caligari is ‘The Castle and the Sun’ by Paul Klee. This was released eight years after Caligari, but is very similar in ways of emphasizing the defined shapes and lines to create a specific mood and atmosphere. However, Wiene differs slightly from the fine art expressionist movement by favouring shadows, darkness and general low-key lighting opposed to the bright, warm colours used by artists such as Klee, and Kirchner who typically create an out of place mood by using a mix of warm and vivid colours in comparison. Other art which served as visual inspiration for the sets and style of Caligari is ‘Landscape near Dresden’, painted in 1910 by Heckel. The warped, unsettling architecture of the buildings represented in the painting are very similar to those constructed in Caligari. The dark, shadows are also an element utilised by Wiene which create a similar kind of haunting effect on the audience. Although the creations of Wiene are innovative and unique, they are based from the fine expressionist art movement, mainly in regards to the bizarre and challenging shapes creating different atmospheres and instilling contemplation into the audience.

Although other similar German Expressionist films were made at the time, it was Caligari which had the most arguably profound impact on the audience, and other film-makers who utilised the Mise en scene to create similar films. A particular example is the 1922 film ‘Nosferatu’ directed by F. W. Murnau. This was another impactful film on the German Expressionism movement, due to the use of low-key lighting and shadows to create an eerie and frightening atmosphere. Murnau used similar techniques to Caligari, emphasizing the importance of shadows to create an element of fear and excitement by not always showing the characters to the audience. This was successful in Caligari because it also added to the dark and intense atmosphere. This produced a similar effect in ‘Nosferatu’, as the monster seemed to be scarier when only shown partially through the shadows.  Another similar film which helped found the German expressionism movement and took inspiration from Caligari is the 1924 drama ‘The Last Laugh’ directed also by Murnau. Many films produced in the 1920’s took inspiration from Caligari, mostly through the lighting and set design. Not all were necessarily horrors, and many were different genres such as dramas which utilised some elements of Caligari such as the low-key lighting. During the time of which Caligari was released, many films were influenced by the visual style of the film; particularly the lighting and Mise en scene.

In contemporary cinema, Caligari has the most notable influence on horror/action director Tim Burton who bases many of his films and overall visual style on German Expressionism. In particular, his 1990 dark romance ‘Edward Scissorhands’ is very visually based from Caligari. The characters are dark, mysterious and typically veering towards bizarre. In a similar way to most of the other films, Edward Scissorhands is mainly influenced by the style of Caligari in the way of favouring darkness to create a mysterious atmosphere. The scenery and location of the film is very dark and gothic in a similar way to Caligari.  The themes of isolation are also represented by the clear similarities between the characters of Cesare and Edward. Both are shown as creations, who are alone and isolated within their lives. Most characters within Edward Scissorhands are based from the dark, defined characters created in Caligari. Burton also creates several other films influenced from German Expressionism, particularly the setting and Mise en scene elements of Caligari. The gothic castle of which Edward lives is repeated throughout several of Burton’s films. This gothic, dark and creepy setting represents the eerie settings created in Caligari which typically use dark colours and out-of-place, bizarre shapes

Lighting is very simple within Dr Caligari as it mainly involves the stark yet deliberate contrast off dark against light and black against white. A prime example of this comes from the makeup of Cesare. As I previously explained, black is used to represent darkness and evil within his character; that of the implication that he is a murderer by the unreliable narrator of Francis. The remarkably white tint of his face stands out sharply against the black hair, makeup and background. White and black are interesting colours to contrast because they are considered opposites; innocence and evil representatives. The surrounding of darkness suggests that Cesare is being affected by evil and this malevolence is slowly spreading. This interpretation can be considered corrupted by Francis’ warped mind which makes us question everything.

Shadows are actually used to show Cesare killing Alan. Throughout the film, we see Cesare as a dark, twisted character. However, by not actually showing him murder Alan, and instead using his shadows; we are given the implication or perhaps foreshadowing that he is not actually a murderer. But by this point, we do not know this so we assume that he is this evil, dark character. Murdering Alan in darkness and hidden by shadows serves as a good representation of Cesare as a dark character himself. We are led to believe this because the darkness hides his true character. Visually, the shadows contrast against the limited lighting to show the audience exactly what is happening. I don’t think the murder would be as effective if shown in broad daylight because by this, we never actually see Cesare do it; this shows that he is not truly evil to the point where Francis’ twisted memory cannot even conjure the image of him murdering Alan

Another main focus of lighting, is that of the contrast between light and dark. Most of the characters wear black, or dark colours aside from Jane. This stands out against the brighter lights and interior designs which are typically white or grey as seen in the picture. Since the characters are usually depicted in darkness, we get the assumption that Francis perceives others as evil and not to be trusted. Since we are watching the film from his ‘flashbacks’, we assume that he is telling the truth. However, his deranged world is fiction and the characters shown in darkness are simply reimagined people from his environment. The colour contrast is significant in showing that there is a clear difference between the characters and the set. This can be derived from the idea that although the people themselves are real their characters created by Francis were not and we are actually not viewing an environment but instead trapped inside the warped mind of Francis

Although Caligari was influenced by the fine expressionist art movement, there were many other external factors which helped create such a unique and innovative film. At the time, most films were produced by the large company, UFA which was founded in 1917. The studios located in Belin were some of the most technologically advanced in the world, which enabled many artistically outstanding films to be produced as a result. There was a particular emphasis on camera work, in films such as ‘Dr. Mabuse the Gambler’ directed by Fritz Lang and released only two years after Caligari. Other successful films included: ‘Sumurun’ (1920, by Ernst Lubitsch) and ‘Die Nibelungen’ (1924, by Fritz Lang). Both films were very successful and produced by the company which served as direct competition to Hollywood; particularly during the silent era

Caligari was distributed by the smaller company ‘Decla Film’, formed in 1911 and also in competition with UFA. It distributed smaller budget films in comparison to the mainstream, high budgeted films produced by UFA. This inspired Wiene to break away from the confines of the typical film conventions and rather than working with the larger company, he focused on a niche audience to satisfy his views of the film rather than the large company and a wider audience. As a result, Caligari was quite a specialised film because the unique look and feel was not typical of the conventional horror nor silent film produced at the time. Although it seemed difficult to defy the company at the time, Wiene focused on the success of his film which resulted in the innovative techniques which later influenced many more similar films and ideas.

The production company ‘Decla’ was a small, independent company which produced Caligari. Erich Pommer was a renowned figure in the silent era of German expressionism, producing numerous successful films, most notably ‘Metropolis’ (1927, by Fritz Lang) which still has a large influence; with the futuristic landscape inspiring films such as ‘Blade Runner’ (1982, by Ridley Scott) and several of the Batman films. This proves the success of the company, which is known for focusing on the niche audience and appeal of a film rather than trying to compete with Hollywood for profit and a large audience, like UFA tried doing during particularly the silent era of 1918. Although there were many ‘successful’ films produced and distributed under UFA; Decla focused on the attributes which made a film successful and popular rather than sticking to generic tropes and conventions to try and draw a crowd.

There are many themes within Dr Caligari, all of which would resonate with the audience at the time of release. Since the film was released after the First World War; there is the strong suggestion that it is based from events occurring then. The interpretation of Caligari represented the authoritative   figure who ruthlessly controls and dominates Cesare. Whereas obedient and submissive; Cesare complies with Caligari’s demands. This can perhaps represent the everyday, working class and struggling German citizen. After kidnapping Jane, it seems that Cesare cannot cope without his source of power and dies. This could represent how the citizens are exploited by the people of higher wealth and power, who take from them and begin to control them; alike Caligari does to Cesare. But Cesare’s ‘murderous rampage’ could be considered an act derived from Caligari who could be fed up with all of the power. This suggests that even the cruellest of tyrannies have a rebellious streak. The use of stairs within the set also represents this unfair and biased power hierarchy, with steps leading down to Caligari’s place whereas stairs upwards to the police station.  This power relationship is significant because it represent s the fraught social class system of Germany after the First World War

Another major idea comes of deception and the twisted perception of reality. Although we trust initially trust Francis based on the normality shown and also the fact that he is our narrator; throughout the film, there is a general unsettling atmosphere created perhaps to warn us that all is not what it seems. The twisted architecture is unnatural and creates tension because the audience is not used to this warped concept onscreen. Despite these hints, we still trust Francis and view Cesare and the murderer due to his association with darkness. But when we finally find out that what happened is in Francis’ head, we cannot accept any of the story as truth because it has been told from not only an unreliable narrator but a madman whose warped perspective we are trapped watching the film from. Since the film is told through flashbacks, we are manipulated into believing it because the lack of dialogue means that we trust Francis’ retelling of events. However, we are shown the insane perception of reality through an insane mind due to the unsettling tension created primarily through the abstract architecture and other elements.  Throughout the film, we trust Francis because of his impression as a regular, protagonist. By learning that this is in fact an idea concocted in his mind; we realise that it is not possible to always believe films because they are told from the perspective of someone who has a profound impact and possible bias on the film, therefore can change the story to accommodate their wishes and paint themselves in whatever light they want

There is also the implication that the final epilogue and closing shots are not accurate, honest nor reliable either. Through Francis’ flashbacks, everything is off-balance and bizarre; yet when he is finally shown in the asylum, we would expect for the world to come back to ‘normal’. But when Francis is sitting on the bench, there are swirly, particularly abstract images around him on the leaves and bench. This suggests that this environment is not considered reliable either. Since the environment follows the same abstract visuals shown in Francis’ bizarre world, we get the impression that we, the audience, have not escaped this insanity since we are still trapped within the twisted nightmare.

We also get the assumption that Dr Caligari is not sane neither. This can be suggested by the closing shot where an iris wipe slowly transitions the scene from a zooming in shot on his face which lingers for a few seconds and is long enough for the audience to catch the deranged look in his eye before cutting to the ending title card. In a similar way to retaining a twisted décor after Francis is revealed as an inmate in the asylum; we are given the impression that although the whole film is shown as the twisted perspective of Francis; reality can be as deceiving and evil. Dr Caligari as revealed as the director of the asylum, but as the camera lingers on him; we are given the impression that all is not what it seems. This ends the film on an unsettling note because we question the reliability of everything. As Francis is revealed as an unreliable narrator, we do not know if the events shown between him and the other characters are true or another twisted nightmare. This can create further doubt over the reliability of the characters, which makes the film extremely mysterious and ambiguous since we do not know how to trust and also what to believe

Finally, the film can be considered an honest representation of the paranoia and anxiety faced by both soldiers and civilians from the end of the First World War. The fear and chaos caused by the murders within the film can represent the frantic, wild state of Germany after the war had finished. The paranoia shown by the characters could resonate with audiences who were just recovering from the devastation caused by the war. Death and murder is a major part of the film as it creates the paranoia and fear, this represents how many people still reflected on the deaths of war and how the film can be a metaphor for the death and devastation caused at war by the controlling, powerful authority figures